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Aldine 




Third Lan^tia^e 
Book 



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Class. 

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COPXRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ALDINE 
THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Language, Grammar, Composition 

GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 
AND JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS 

BY 
FRANK E, SPAULDING 

SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO 

CATHERINE T; BRYCE 

ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, CLEVELAND, OHIO 

HUBER GRAY BUEHLER 

HEADMASTER OF THE HOTCHKISS SCHOOL, LAKEVILLE, CONNECTICUT 




NEW YORK 
NEWSON & COMPANY 



TEini 



Copyright, 1917, by 
NEWSON & COMPANY. 



All rights reserved. 

[I] 






2>CI.A470727 



PREFACE 

This book, like the preceding books of the Aldine 
Language Series, is the outgrowth of many years of. 
experience and of innumerable experiments not only in 
teaching, but also in helping others to teach language 
and grammar effectively. This experience and these 
experiments have abundantly demonstrated the prac- 
tical possibility of making language study at once the 
most educational of all school subjects, and the most 
interesting to both pupils and teachers. 

This is not primarily a book of rules and definitions 
to be memorized and recited, or a book of formal 
exercises designed to give practice in correct usage. 
It is rather a stimulus to observation, imagination, and 
thought, and a guide to the effective expression of the 
results of observation, imagination, and thought. Defi- 
nitions, rules, and exercises are not lacking, it is true ; 
but these are made to serve the efforts of the pupil to 
think and to give effective expression to his thinking. 

The book is founded upon these simple, universal 
facts : Boys and girls think and feel ; they express 
their thought and feeling through language ; they try 
to influence the thought, feeling, and actions of others 
through language ; they respond to the thought and 



iv PREFACE 

feeling of others as expressed in language. These 
things they do as naturally, as necessarily, and normally 
with as much pleasure, as they eat and drink ; even 
more, for eating and drinking are merely a means of 
living, while thinking and expressing thought are life 
itself. 

The method of the book, if the meaning of this 
term may be enlarged somewhat beyond its usual 
pedagogical significance, consists in helping pupils 
to carry on these fundamental and unavoidable life 
activities more successfully, and hence more satisfac- 
torily to themselves. This can be done, of course, 
not by lifting them into an adult world and requiring 
them to think the thoughts of others, but by helping 
them to think and to express their own thoughts. 
The method is adapted to the pupil ; the pupil is not 
fitted to the method. Hence the naturalness and joy 
found in a subject that is quite generally associated 
with artificiality and drudgery. 

Helping pupils to think and to express their own 
thoughts effectively by no means involves neglect of 
the expressed thought of others. On the contrary, 
fine types of literary expression are a chief reliance in 
helping pupils to think, in providing and suggesting 
ideas, and in showing how thoughts may be expressed 
most effectively. Accordingly, the analysis and study 
of appropriate selections, rather than the memorizing 
of rules and definitions, is made to reveal to the pupil 
the general plan of organizing and presenting thought 



PREFACE v 

effectively, and the importance of using just the right 
word. This analysis also reveals the conventional 
forms of expression, such as paragraphing and punctu- 
ation. It precedes the pupil's efforts to give expres- 
sion to his own thoughts. The studied selections 
serve as types, or models. The pupil imitates, not 
mechanically, but intelligently ; he compares his re- 
sults with the model. 

One of the incidental, but fundamentally important, 
results of this study and intelligent imitation of good 
types of expression is to take literature out of the 
realm of the extraordinary and to bring it within the 
comprehension of the pupil, and reveal it to him as 
a quite human thing, produced by men and women, 
even boys and girls, such as he knows. It impresses 
upon the pupil the idea that he, any one, may produce 
writing that is worth while. It tends to give the pupil 
confidence in himself, and to give him courage and 
perseverance in his efforts to learn how to express his 
thoughts most effectively. 

The purpose, general character, and method of this 
book, as already suggested, largely determine the place 
of grammar, and the role of the teacher. The essen- 
tial principles of grammar are adequately presented and 
abundantly illustrated ; their study, however, is never 
made an end in itself, but always a direct aid to the 
correct and effective use of language. Pupils put into 
practice immediately all the grammar that the book 
provides, which makes this subject helpful and inter- 



VI 



PREFACE 



esting, rather than an unused burden on the memory. 
Though pupils who complete the study of this book 
may happily be found lacking in a memoriter knowl- 
edge of some of the over-refinements and impractical 
technicalities of grammar, they will be found ade- 
quately equipped with a practical, working knowledge 
of the essentials of grammar and their application. 

In life, oral precedes written language; so in this 
book, oral precede written exercises ; indeed, the for- 
mer are uniformly used to prepare for the latter. But 
this does not mean that oral language is made subor- 
dinate to written language. Both forms of expression, 
oral and written, are given the same place that they 
hold in everyday communication of thought. For 
example, pupils learn to tell stories and to give de- 
scriptions both orally and in writing ; they learn to 
present arguments, especially in speech, and also in 
writing. 

The role of the teacher using this book as it should 
be used is primarily that of the helper, inspirer, and 
guide, rather than that of the tester and critical exam- 
iner of memory contents. It is not for the teacher 
merely to assign tasks for the pupil and then to pass 
judgment; teacher and pupils must work together, pass 
judgment together upon the success of their efforts, 
and strive together for constant improvement. The 
classroom must be a working laboratory, not a Chinese 
examination cell. 



PREFACE vii 

A Manual for Teachers accompanies this book, mak- 
ing clear from the teacher's view-point the purpose of 
certain exercises, and suggesting methods of procedure 
and much practical supplementary work. It should be 
in the hands of every teacher. 

Grateful acknowledgments are here made to authors 
and publishers who have kindly permitted the use in 
this book of copyrighted material : 

To Charles Scribner's Sons for the selection from 
" Hans Brinker " by Mary Mapes Dodge ; to John 
Lane Company for "Vitae Lampada" by Sir Henry 
Newbolt, and a selection from " Dream Days " by 
Kenneth Grahame ; and to Little, Brown, and Com- 
pany for the passage from " Social Life in Old New 
England " by Mary C. Crawford. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Stories 1 

II. Subject, Predicate, Substantive, Verb .... 22 

III. Topics, Paragraphs, Outlines 48 

IV. Nouns and Pronouns; Nominative Case; Number and 

Person ; Agreement of Verbs ; Gender ; Agreement 

of Pronouns 81 

V. Letter Writing 119 

VI. Modifiers ; Adjectives ; Adverbs 131 

VII. The Choice of Words 171 

VIII. Verbs 206 

IX. Description 265 

X. Phrases; Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections; 

Clauses 293 

XI. Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences; Relative 

Pronouns 314 

XII. Narration . . . . 343 

XIII. How to Make Sentences Forceful 395 

XIV. Exposition and Argument 406 

XV. Summary of Rules for Punctuation and Capitals . 421 



THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 



ALDINE 
THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

CHAPTER ONE 

STORIES 
I. THREE TESTS OF A GOOD STORY 

The Book Critic 

" There, Jack, there's the book for you." 
These words drew my attention from the magazine 
article I was reading in the public library. I looked 
up in time to see the speaker, a bright-faced lad of 
twelve, hand a book to one of a group of three boys 
who were eagerly watching him. The speaker turned 
to the shelves, took down another volume, ruffled the 
pages through his fingers, and returned the book to its 
place. Book after book he treated in the same way, 
until at last he held one a little longer, then handed 
it to a second boy with the remark, " There's one 
for you, Tom." After examining several more books 
in the same way, he found one for his third companion. 
Without a question the three boys carried their books 
to the desk, had the proper records made, and left the 
room with an air of complete satisfaction. 

The boy book-critic selected a magazine for himself, 
and, with an evident feeling of duty well done, seated 
himself near me. I saw the card, " Quiet in This 



2 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Room," but I simply had to find out how that boy- 
judged books so quickly. Turning to him, I asked, 
" Do you often help the other boys select their books? " 

" I often select them for them," was the reply. 

" But how do you decide ? " I asked. " You did not 
seem to select the works of any particular author." 

" No, I didn't! " he said. " The fellows don't want 
a good author. They want a good book, and I'll tell 
you how I judge a good book. I read a little at the 
beginning. If it sounds interesting, if it makes me 
want to know what's going to happen, I turn to the 
middle. There I read a little to see whether something 
is happening, whether the story is exciting, whether 
the people in it are saying or doing something interest- 
ing. Then I look to see whether it ends all right. If 
the beginning, middle, and end strike me all right, I 
think the fellows will like it. See ? " 

The boy's tests of a story were suggestive. 
While a good story must meet many other tests, 
no story can be very interesting that does not 
meet these three. Let us keep them in mind, and 
apply them in judging the work of others and our 
own attempts at composition. 

II. THE BEGINNING OR INTRODUCTION OF 
A STORY 

Here are the beginnings of some stories or com- 
positions by well-known authors. 

(i) I stole along the dark alley into the street. 



THE BEGINNING OF A STORY 3 

Surely the above introductory sentence arrests 
your attention. Don't you wonder why he stole 
along in the dark ? Wouldn't you like to know 
what he saw at the end of the alley ? 

(2) Hetherington wasn't half a bad sort of fellow, but 
he had his peculiarities, most of which were the natural 
defects of a lack of imagination. He didn't believe in 
ghosts, or Santa Claus, or any of the thousands of 
other things that he hadn't seen with his own eyes. 

— John Kendrick Bangs 

What do you think is going to happen to Hether- 
ington in this story ? Do you think he is going to 
be converted and learn to believe in ghosts or 
Santa Claus or something that he has not seen 
with his own eyes ? Should you like to find out 
how this came about ? If so, this introduction 
has aroused your interest and curiosity, and is a 
good introduction. 

(3) A thing happened worth narrating at the close of 
a visit paid *me by Robin Oig, one of the sons of the 
notorious Rob Roy. As he was leaving, just in the 
door, he met Alan coming in ; and the two drew back 
and looked at each other like strange dogs. They were 
neither of them big men, but they seemed fairly to 
swell out with pride. Each wore a sword, and by a 
movement of his haunch thrust clear the hilt of it, 
so that it might be the more readily grasped and the 
blade drawn. 

— Robert Louis Stevenson 



4 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

What does this introduction promise of the 
story that is to follow ? Why is it a good be- 
ginning of a story ? 

(4) Evidently that gate is never opened ; for the 
long grass and the great hemlocks grow close against 
it; and, if it were opened, it is so rusty that the force 
necessary to turn it on its hinges would be likely to 
pull down the square stone-built pillars, to the detri- 
ment of the two stone lionesses which grin above a 
coat of arms surmounting each of the pillars. 

— George Eliot 

Why is this introduction a good one ? What 
does it suggest of the house behind the gate ? 
Is there any mystery connected with it ? What 
kind of people built the house ? Why, perhaps, 
is the gate never opened ? Could you make a 
story about the house and its people ? 

The beginning of the story must be interesting. It must 
arouse curiosity, or the desire to read further. 

III. MAKING STORIES FROM INTRODUC- 
TIONS 

Choose one of the foregoing introductions and 
write a story from it. Try to satisfy the curiosity 
aroused by the introduction. Make the story 
amusing, mysterious, thrilling, or pathetic, as 
suggested by the introduction. 



MOVEMENT IN STORIES 5 

IV. SELECTING GOOD INTRODUCTIONS 

Look through your readers or any book of 
stories you have, and select a good introduction 
to a story. Be prepared to read this introduction 
at the next language lesson period and to tell 
why you think it good. 

V. MOVEMENT IN STORIES — LOCHINVAR 

1. What was the boy critic's second test of a 
good story ? 

Every sentence and every word used should tend 
to the telling of the story. 

2. Try the boy critic's second test on any stanza 
of the following story of Lochinvar. Is something 
happening in that stanza ? Is the story a live 
one in that stanza ? Are the persons or char- 
acters doing or saying something interesting in 
that stanza ? 

Read the whole poem and note how* full of 
action it is. There is something happening in 
nearly every line. 

Are the sentences as a rule long or short ? Can 
you find a line or a sentence that does not add 
something new and interesting to the story ? 

Mention the things in the first stanza that 
awaken the reader's interest. 



6 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Lochinvar 

O, young Lochinvar is come out of the West, 
Through all the wide Border his steed was the best ; 
And, save his good broadsword, he weapon had none, . 
He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. 
So faithful in love, and so dauntless in war, 
There never was knight like the young Lochinvar. 

He stayed not for brake, and he stopped not for stone, 

He swam the Eske river where ford there was none ; 

But, ere he alighted at Netherby gate, 

The bride had consented, the gallant came late: 

For a laggard in love, and a dastard in war, 

Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. 

So boldly he entered the Netherby Hall, 

Among bridesmen, and kinsmen, and brothers, and all. 

Then spoke the bride's father, his hand on his sword, 

(For the poor craven bridegroom said never a word), 

" O, come ye in peace here, or come ye in war, 

Or to dance at our bridal, young Lord Lochinvar ? " 

" I long wooed your daughter, my suit you denied ; 
Love swells like the Solway, but ebbs like its tide ; 
And now am I come, with this lost love of mine, 
To lead but one measure, drink one cup of wine. 
There are maidens in Scotland more lovely by far, 
That would gladly be bride to the young Lochinvar." 

The bride kissed the goblet ; the knight took it up ; 
He quaffed off the wine, and he threw down the cup. 



MOVEMENT IN STORIES 7 

She looked down to blush, and she looked up to sigh, 
With a smile on her lips, and a tear in her eye. 
He took her soft hand, ere her mother could bar, — 
" Now tread we a measure ! " said young Lochinvar. 

So stately his form, and so lovely her face, 
That never a hall such a galliard did grace ; 
While her mother did fret, and her father did fume, 
And the bridegroom stood dangling his bonnet and 

plume ; 
And the bride-maidens whispered, " 'Twere better by 

far 
To have matched our fair cousin with young Lochin- 
var." 

One touch to her hand, and one word in her ear, 
When they reached the hall door, and the charger stood 

near ; 
So light to the croupe the fair lady he swung, 
So light to the saddle before her he sprung ! 
" She is won ! we are gone ! over bank, bush, and scaur ; 
They'll have fleet steeds that follow," quoth young 

Lochinvar. 

There was mounting 'mong Graemes of the Netherby 

clan; 
Forsters, Fenwicks, and Musgraves, they rode and they 

ran : 
There was racing and chasing on Cannobie Lee, 
But the lost bride of Netherby ne'er did they see. 
So daring in love, and so dauntless in war, 
Have ye e'er heard of gallant like young Lochinvar ? 

— Sir Walter Scott 



8 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

3. Apply the boy critic's first and second tests 
to the following prose story. 

One night the gallant Lochinvar, weary from the 
day's battles, threw himself down to rest. No sooner 
had his eyes closed than he found himself wandering 
in dreamland with fair Ellen, the daughter of Graeme 
of Netherby Hall. Upon his dream broke a voice 
crying, " Arouse ye, brave Lochinvar! I bring ye a 
message from fair Ellen! " 

Young Lochinvar sprang to his feet. " Your mes- 
sage! I will hear it at once! " he cried. 

" Mistress Ellen commanded me to ride at full 
speed to bid you hasten to her side. Her father and 
mother are forcing her to wed one who is a coward 
and a braggart. She spurns him and his gold and 
longs for you to save her. This is my message," re- 
plied the stranger. 

Even while the message was being delivered, the 
dauntless Lochinvar was buckling on his sword. 
" My horse!" he cried to his servant. "Bring 
me my horse ! " 

" Where are you going ? " asked the messenger. 

" To Netherby Hall," was the answer. 

" Ye cannot go so. Ye are unarmed," cried the 
messenger. " Wait until morning ; then put on your 
armor, and ride forth at the head of your men." 

" Nay, my good sword is armor enough. My steed 
is the fleetest in the border. I go at once," answered 
Lochinvar. So saying, he sprang to his saddle. 

" Stay ! " cried the messenger. " The bridge is 
down over the River Eske. Ye must ride up to the 
ford." 



MOVEMENT IN STORIES 9 

But before the messenger had finished speaking, 
the dashing Lochinvar was out of sight. On and on 
he flew through the darkness. Over the Eske where 
there was neither bridge nor ford, he swam his good 
steed. But with all his haste, he did not reach 
Netherby until the night set for the wedding. 

Boldly the knight entered the hall of the feast. A 
dead silence fell on the company gathered there. 
Straight to Ellen's side he went. The cowardly 
bridegroom drew back. The bride's kinsmen stood 
astounded. At last the bride's father, his hand on his 
sword, advanced and demanded, " Come ye in peace 
here, or come ye in war ? Or to dance at our bridal, 
young Lochinvar ? " 

Proudly the knight drew himself up and answered, 
" I have come to dance just once with fair Ellen, to 
drink to her happiness in just one cup of wine." 

Blushing, Ellen filled a goblet with wine ; kissing 
the rim, as was the bride's custom, she handed it to 
the knight. After drinking the bride's health, Loch- 
invar dashed the goblet to the ground, that no less 
worthy toast might be drunk from it. Then taking 
Ellen's hand he said, " Now for our dance." 

So stately his form and so lovely her face, the guests 
looked upon them with admiration. The bride's 
mother fretted ; her father raged ; the cowardly 
bridegroom stood awkward and alone. 

" How handsome they are ! " whispered the brides- 
maids. " Lochinvar is the fitting mate for our fair 
cousin." 

Down the room advanced Lochinvar and fair Ellen. 
When they reached the hall door, Lochinvar whispered 
in Ellen's ear. Then swiftly through the door they 



io THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

sped. There stood Lochinvar's matchless steed. 
Quickly the knight lifted Ellen to the charger's back ; 
and quickly he mounted before her. Then galloping 
off he cried, " She is won! We are gone! They'll 
have fleet steeds that follow! " 

The astonished guests stood speechless for a moment. 
Then they rushed to their horses and were off in swift 
pursuit. But it was useless. Not one came within 
sight of the lost bride of Netherby. Now, " So daring 
in love and so dauntless in war, have ye e'er heard of 
gallant like young Lochinvar ? " 

How does the first sentence arouse interest ? 
Select some paragraph near the middle and see 
if there is something happening in it. Is it inter- 
esting ? Can you find any paragraph in which 
the characters are not doing or saying something 
interesting ? 

Compare the events in the prose story with 
those in the poem. The writer of it has not 
followed the poem too closely. He has told the 
story in his own way, adding some things from 
his own imagination. It is plain that he saw 
it all very clearly in his own mind. What is 
told in the prose version that is not in the poem ? 
What is in the poem that is omitted in the prose ? 
Are the sentences, as a rule, long or short ? 

Is something happening all the time ? Does 
one action lead straight to another, and that 



MAKING PROSE VERSIONS OF POEMS n 

action to another, and so on until the climax is 
reached and the whole is complete ? Look through 
the story and note down the events in the form 
of an outline : thus, 

(i) Lochinvar lies down to rest. 

(2) He dreams. 

(3) A voice arouses him. 

(4) He springs up. 

Is there any going backward or turning aside in 
these events ? Are they arranged in the order in 
which they occurred ? 

In a well-told story there is always movement — forward 
movement — from the beginning to the end. 

VI. MAKING PROSE VERSIONS OF POEMS 
FULL OF ACTION 

Select one of the poems mentioned below ; read 
it through carefully to see the events vividly in 
your own mind ; write the story in your own way. 

(1) Try to make your introduction interesting, 
so that one will want to read further. 

(2) Make the whole story alive and full of in- 
terest; make something happen, make the story 
move forward all the time, so that one who was 
interested to read beyond the introduction may 
continue to be interested to the end. 

(3) Use any words or expressions from the 



12 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

poem that will add to the interest or beauty of 
your story, but give your own imagination some 

play. 

The Cumberland. — Henry W. Longfellow. 

The Pied Piper. — Robert Browning. 

The Inchcape Rock. — Robert Southey. 

Horatius at the Bridge. — Thomas B. Macaulay. 

Paul Revere's Ride. — Henry W. Longfellow. 

Conductor Bradley. — John G. Whittier. 

How the Robin Came. — John G. Whittier. 

The Glove and the Lion. — Leigh Hunt. 

An Incident of the French Camp. — Robert Brown- 
ing. 

Bishop Hatto and the Mouse Tower. — Robert 
Southey. 

Herve Riel. — Robert Browning. 

Lord Ullin's Daughter. — Thomas Campbell. 

Lady Clare. — Alfred Tennyson. 

VII. JUDGING STORIES 

a. Read your story through carefully and apply 
to it the three tests that the boy critic used : 
(i) Is the introduction interesting enough to make 
one want to read further ? (2) Is the story full of 
interesting events, that move forward rapidly 
from the beginning to the end ? (3) Will the 
ending satisfy the reader ? 

If you can improve the story in any of these 
three respects, do so. 



THE END OF A STORY 13 

b. Pupils exchange stories. Each pupil reads 
another pupil's story and judges it by the three 
tests. The reader must be prepared to defend 
his judgment, and, if the judgment is unfavorable, 
to suggest ways in which the story may be im- 
proved. 

VIII. THE END OF A STORY 
The end of a story should satisfy the reader. 

It should make the reader feel that the story 
is complete and that nothing remains to be told. 
A good story often stops at the point of highest 
interest, called the Climax. It does not add 
anything unimportant, which would be an Anti- 
climax. 

The climax is not always the end of the story, 
for sometimes it is important to follow it with 
a Conclusion, showing what resulted from the 
climax, or how the situation was cleared up. 

The Rescue 

The multitude gasps in horror as the flames creep 
nearer and nearer to the little figure in the high win- 
dow. The mother kneels on the ground and with 
outstretched arms mutters pathetically, " Come, baby, 
come to mother ! Come ! come ! come ! " Oh, to 
blot out the sight, for no rescue is possible ! What 
is that ? An arm appears, grasps the child, and 



i 4 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

draws her back just as the baffled flames leap through 
the window. A moment more and the dense crowd 
opens a pathway straight to the kneeling mother. 
Down this lane staggers a fireman, and in a silence 
more expressive than the loudest cheers, places the 
baby in those empty, hungry arms. 

The fireman, whose name was Jack Smith, was 
twenty years old and lived at 19 Court Street. 

a. Here are climax and anticlimax. The climax 
is the point of highest interest, at which the story 
ought to stop. Where is that point ? The anti- 
climax is the unimportant part that is added, the 
part that disturbs the picture that should be left 
in the mind, the feeling that should be left in the 
heart. Read the anticlimax. 

b. Have you ever written or read, at the con- 
clusion of a thrilling description of some wonderful 
deed or exciting event, a sentence such as the 
following ? 

He went home and told his mother all about it. 
Jack never went there again. 
This happened last summer. 

Such endings make an anticlimax. 

c. Suppose the story above ended with the 
sentence, "An arm appears, grasps the child, 
and draws her back just as the baffled flames leap 
through the window." You would know that the 
child was safe, but would you be satisfied ? Would 
you consider the story complete ? What more do 
you wish to know ? 



GOOD STORY ENDINGS 15 

d. Suppose the writer of the story wished to 
show how Jack Smith, who had been called a 
coward, proved that he was brave ; what point 
would then become the climax ? How would 
you end the story ? Rewrite the story to bring 
out the bravery of Jack Smith who had been 
called a coward. End it with a strong climax. 

IX. GOOD STORY ENDINGS 



The servants, when they came to make their rounds 
that night before turning out the lights, were surprised 
to find Billie Ricketts, the old bachelor, lying fast 
asleep in the warm embrace of one of the richly up- 
holstered armchairs in the clubhouse, before the blazing 
fire on the hearth, with a mite of a boy curled up in his 
lap. . . . 

There was that upon the faces of both that gave the 
watchers pause, and they refrained from waking them, 
merely turning out the electric lights and tiptoeing 
softly out of the room, leaving the sleepers bathed in 
the mellow glow of the dancing flames. 

Two lonely hearts had come into their own in the 
House of the Seven Santas ! 

— John Kendrick Bangs 

Isn't the above a satisfying ending for the story 
of a poor little half-frozen newsboy who was 
rescued and brought to a man's clubhouse ? Here 
seven men played Santa Claus and gave the boy 



16 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

gifts. The old bachelor gave him the best gift 
■ — a name, Billie Ricketts, Jr. — and adopted the 
lad. 

What was "that upon the faces of both that 
gave the watchers pause"? Why didn't they 
wake the sleepers ? What does this mean : "Two 
lonely hearts had come into their own"? Why 
was the clubhouse called the "House of the Seven 
Santas"? 

Read the whole story if you can. It is full of 
fun and beauty. 

2 

A shrill whistle sounds. The hard-fought game is 
over; score, 6-5. 

Why is this a good ending to an account of a 
game of football ? Is there anything in it that 
suggests the breaking-up of the game, and the 
dispersing of the crowds ? Why are these things 
omitted ? 

3 

If there is any moral to this story, as no doubt there 
should be, it lies in the fact that Mrs. Blake never again 
sat down in a chair without first lifting the cushion. 

— Rose Terry Cooke 

This ending suggests something of the whole 
story. It suggests that there was a story to tell 
just because Mrs. Blake did sit down in a chair 



GOOD STORY ENDINGS 17 

without lifting the cushion. A most amusing 
story grew out of Mrs. Blake's sitting on Miss 
Beulah's Sunday bonnet. 

What do you think of this ending of the story ? 
Does it " complete " the incident ? Does it " round 
up" the story? Does it form a climax? 



At the usual evening hour the chapel bell began to 
toll, and Thomas Newcome's hands outside the bed 
feebly beat time. And just as the last bell struck, a 
peculiar sweet smile shone over his face, and he lifted 
up his head a little, and quickly said, " Adsum ! " 
and fell back. It was the word we used at school, 
when names were called ; and lo, he, whose heart 
was as that of a little child, had answered to his name, 
and stood in the presence of The Master. 

— William Makepeace Thackeray 

"Adsum" is Latin for "I am present." Can 
you imagine a more beautiful description of the 
death of a good man ? 

What is the climax in this paragraph ? 

Would the ending be equally satisfying if the 
last sentence were omitted ? Why not ? Do you 
feel that there is anything more to be told ? 

5 
All their lives they had been together, and in their 
deaths they were not divided ; for when they were 



1 8 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

found, the arms of the boy were folded too closely 
around the dog to be severed without violence, and 
the people of their little village, contrite and ashamed, 
implored a special grace upon them, and, making them 
one grave, laid them to rest there side by side — 
forever ! 

— Louise de la Ramee 

Perhaps you recognize the above as the closing 
words of the well-known and much-loved story, A 
Dog of Flanders. While this ending may bring a 
tear to the eye for the fate of Nello and his faithful 
dog friend, it leaves a feeling of satisfaction that 
their worth was appreciated by the people at last, 
and that nothing could separate the loyal comrades. 

Does the last word strengthen the climax of 
the story ? 

Does this ending make the tale complete ? 

X. WRITING A STORY TO FIT AN ENDING 

Select one of the five endings given above, and 
write a story that may be fittingly concluded with 
that ending. Do not try to reproduce the author's 
story. 

If you choose ending 3, tell of some amusing 
thing that happened because some one sat down 
on a chair without first removing the cushion. 

If you choose ending 5, tell the story of a boy 
and a dog who lost their lives at the same time. 



WRITING A STORY IN PARTS 19 

Whatever the story you tell, try to make it as 
interesting as the ending. Make the introduction 
such that it will arouse the interest of the reader ; 
make the events move forward and find their 
completion in the chosen ending. 

XL WRITING A STORY IN PARTS 

a. Select a title and write the introduction to a 
story. Others will continue and finish the story. 
In your introduction, try to arouse the interest 
of the one who will write after you, so that he 
will want to continue the story; make the intro- 
duction the beginning of something that must be 
told. Write only the introduction; stop before 
even beginning the real story. 

Here are some titles from which you may select, 
if you can think of none better. 

(1) The Burning of the River Mill. 

(2) The Loss of the Frigate Dauntless. - 

(3) The Umpire's Decision. 

(4) The Lost Purse. 

(5) The Coming of the Bluebird. 

(6) Little Larry's Christmas Tree. 

(7) How Santa Came to Holden's Cabin. 

(8) Ned's New Shoes. 

(9) The Winning of the Pennant. 

(10) The Mysterious Light. 

(1 1) How Tom, the Tramp, " Made Good." 



20 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

b. Read the introduction written by some 
other pupil. Does it fit the title ? Does it sug- 
gest something more to be told ? Do you need 
to make changes in it before writing the story ? 

c. Write the story from the introduction written 
by another pupil. Do not complete it ; leave it at 
an exciting or interesting point. 

d. Complete a story which has been written, all 
but the ending, by other pupils. First, study the 
story carefully, so that you can make a really 
fitting conclusion for it. 

e. Apply the boy critic's three tests to a story 
written in cooperation. 

XII. TELLING A STORY 

Recall some interesting experience you have had 
(or imagined), and tell it to your classmates in an 
interesting talk of three or four minutes. 

Consider how you will make the beginning in- 
teresting. What will you use for your first sen- 
tence ? Try to think of a beginning that will make 
your audience want to hear more. 

Keep your story moving by omitting things that 
are unnecessary or uninteresting; end with a 
climax that will make the story seem complete. 

If you cannot think of a subject, perhaps the 
following list will suggest one : 



TELLING A STORY 21 

1. In a tent. 

2. Alone on the road. 

3. While picking berries. 

4. A narrow escape. 

5. A surprise. 

6. An accident. 

7. A very exciting game. 

8. A very strange dream. 

9. At a railroad crossing. 

10. By the sea. 

11. An automobile trip. 

12. My longest journey. 

13. A canoe adventure. 

14. Kept after school. 

15. One Saturday morning. 

16. First attendance at church. 

17. What the flag means to me. 

18. Soldiers on parade. 

19. Soldiers in camp. 

20. A visit to a battleship. 

21. How I am serving my country. 

22. Father and I. 

23. Mother and I. 

24. A holiday in our family. 

25. A workday at home. 

26. Home study. 

27. A tight shoe. 

28. A torn garment. 

29. Something lost. 

30. Something found. 

31. A foolish quarrel. 

32. A right fight. 



CHAPTER TWO 

SUBJECT, PREDICATE, SUBSTANTIVE, VERB 
I. THE MEANING AND USE OF GRAMMAR 

You have often been told that you should say : 

We girls went not Us girls went 

It is I not It is me 

He doesn't know not He don't know 

He and I saw it not Him and me seen it 

He can't run as fast as I not He can't run as fast as me 

She invited Mary and me not She invited Mary and I 

She reads well not She reads good 

Have you ever practiced correct forms like 
those in the first column, in exercises or games ? 
Do you know why the first column is right and the 
second wrong ? The time has come to learn 
why; but it cannot all be told in one lesson. It 
will take many lessons, like music or swimming, 
and the first lessons may not seem very useful. 
But when you have finished, you will see that 
every lesson was needed. 

In order to know why the sentences in the first 
column are right, the others wrong, it is necessary 
to understand the relations which words have to 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 23 

one another when they are -put together in sentences. 
This study is called Grammar. 

Grammar is an account of the relations which words bear 
to one another when they are put together in sentences. 

The study of grammar will not, of itself, make 
you speak or write correctly ; because your speak- 
ing and writing are mainly habits, which you 
form by frequent repetition. But grammar is 
necessary as a guide. After a while you will 
leave school, and then you will not have your 
teacher to tell you which sentences are right and 
which are wrong. You must learn to decide for 
yourself, and you can do this only through some 
study of grammar. 

II. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

When Sir Walter Scott wrote "Lochinvar," he 
had a thought about the bridegroom. He wanted 
us to have the same thought, and he conveyed it 
to us by saying : 

The poor craven bridegroom said never a word. 

If Scott had merely said, 

bridegroom, 

he would have expressed only a part of his thought. 
He would have told us that he was thinking about 



24 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

the bridegroom (not the bride, the horse, the 
father, or the mother), but nothing more. 
If he had said only, 

The poor craven bridegroom, 

he would have mentioned the kind of man the 
bridegroom was ; but he still would not have 
told us his complete thought about the bride- 
groom. He might have had any one of many 
thoughts about the same person : such as, 

{had been dancing, 
did not draw his sword, 
stepped aside. 

Scott made us know his complete thought by 
saying that the person he had named 

said never a word. 

These last words are not a complete thought 
by themselves. They make complete sense only 
when used with words which tell who "said never 
a word." Scott might have had this part of his 
thought about any one of a number of persons : 
as, 

Lochinvar 



The bride 

The bride's father 

The kinsmen 



said never a word. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 25 

He expressed the complete thought actually in 
his mind by putting together a naming part and 
an asserting part: thus, 

Naming Part Asserting Part 



The poor craven bridegroom said never a word 

A group of words expressing a complete thought is called 
a Sentence. 

The naming part of a sentence is called the Subject. 
The asserting part of a sentence is called the Predicate. 

a. In "Lochinvar" (page 6) find another sen- 
tence about the bridegroom. Write it on the 
blackboard, and tell which part is the subject and 
which the predicate, and why. 

Find a sentence about Ellen, and tell which 
part is subject and which predicate, and why. 

Find a sentence about the bride's father, and 
tell which part is subject and which predicate, 
and why. 

Find five sentences about Lochinvar, and point 
out the subject and the predicate of each. Per- 
haps, instead of naming him, they will refer to 
him as "He." 

b. Make three interesting sentences about each 
of the following persons or things, by beginning 
each sentence with the given subject and adding 
three different, interesting predicates : as, 



26 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Sir Walter Scott wrote novels as well as poems. 
Sir Walter Scott was very fond of dogs. 
Sir Walter Scott was lame. 
(i) Our playground. . (6) Ford automobiles. 

(2) Our school. (7) Wild flowers. 

(3) Our schoolroom. (8) Song birds. 

(4) George Washington. (9) The school ball. 

(5) The United States. (10) Our luncheon hour. 

c. Make ten interesting sentences by using each 
of the following predicates with two different sub- 

J (1) once came to our school. 

(2) gave the boys a ride. 

(3) nearly caused an accident. 

(4) wrote interesting stories. | 

(5) are very useful on a farm. 

III. SENTENCES AND NOT-SENTENCES 

a. Is the following group of words a sentence ? 
Lochinvar's galloping steed 

What is the writer thinking about ? He is 
thinking about a steed or horse. 

Is he not thinking about Lochinvar ? No, he 
is thinking about Lochinvar's steed. 

What does "galloping" do? It describes the 
steed that the thought is about. 

What is the thought about Lochinvar's galloping 
steed ? The group of words does not express a 
thought. 



SENTENCES AND NOT-SENTENCES 27 

b. Is the following group of words a sentence ? 

Lochinvar's galloping steed outdistanced the pur- 
suers. 

What words are added in this second group of 
words ? What different words might have been 
added ? 

Do these words complete the thought ? Yes, 
because they make an assertion about the subject 
of the thought. 

c. Study each of the following groups of words. 
If it is a sentence, point out the subject and the 

predicate. Mention several other subjects that 
might be used with the same predicate. Mention 
one or two other predicates that would make a 
complete thought with the same subject. 

If the group of words is not a sentence, add 
some words to make the thought complete. Are 
the words which you have added a subject or a 
predicate ? 

1. Birds sing in the spring sunshine. 

2. Singing birds in the spring sunshine. 

3. The bird singing in the tree. 

4. The bird singing in the tree is a bobolink. 

5. A bobolink is singing in that tree. 

6. I heard a bird singing in a tree. 

7. The bird was a bobolink. 

8. A singing bird high up in the branches. 

9. The bird was singing. 



28 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

10. Snow falls in cold climates. 

11. Soft white snow in cold climates. 

12. Snow is soft and white. 

13. The falling snow, hiding the road. 

14. Soft white snow is falling. 

15. The soft white snow falling from the sky. 

16. The soft white snow falling from the sky will 
soon cover the ground. 

17. Plants growing in mother's garden. 
18/ Will shake the nuts down. 



IV. MARKING THE BEGINNING AND THE 
END OF SENTENCES 

We use a capital letter to show the beginning of a sen- 
tence ; the end is shown by a punctuation mark. 

The kind of punctuation used to show the end 
of a sentence depends on the kind of sentence. 

a. Boldly the knight entered the hall of the feast. 

This sentence states something, or declares it. 
What shows the end of the sentence ? 

A sentence that states or declares something is called a 
Declarative Sentence. 

The end of a declarative sentence should be marked by a 
period (.). 

b. Come ye in peace here, or come ye in war? 

This sentence asks a question. What marks 
the end of the question ? 



BEGINNING AND END OF SENTENCES 29 

A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative 
Sentence. 

The end of an interrogative sentence should be marked 
by an Interrogation Point (?). 

c. Is Ellen blushing? 

The subject of this sentence is "Ellen," because 
it is the naming part. The predicate is "is 
blushing?" because it asks something about the 
subject. 

The predicate of an interrogative sentence asks instead 
of asserts. 

d. She is won ! They'll have fleet steeds that follow ! 
Wasn't he brave ! 

The first two sentences express strong or sudden 
feeling by declaring something. They are declara- 
tive sentences used as exclamations. What marks 
the end of each sentence ? 

The last sentence expresses strong or sudden 
feeling by asking something. It is an interroga- 
tive sentence used as an exclamation. What 
marks the end of the sentence ? 

A sentence used as an exclamation expressing strong or 
sudden feeling is called an Exclamatory Sentence. 

The end of an exclamatory sentence should be marked 
by an Exclamation Point (!). 

Exclamatory sentences should not be used too 
freely, else they lose their effect. 



3 o THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

V. STUDYING DECLARATIVE, INTERROGA- 
TIVE, AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES 

a. The multitude gasped in horror as the flames 
crept nearer to the little figure in the high window. 

This is a declarative sentence because it states 
or declares something. "The" begins with a 
capital letter to show the beginning of the sen- 
tence. The end of the declarative sentence is 
marked by a period. 

b. How did the fire start ? 

This is an interrogative sentence because it 
asks a question. "How" begins with a capital 
letter to show the beginning of the sentence. 
The end of the question is marked by an interro- 
gation point. 

c. No rescue is possible! 

This is an exclamatory sentence because it is 
used as an exclamation expressing strong or sudden 
feeling. "No" begins with a capital letter to 
show the beginning of the sentence. The end of 
the exclamation is shown by an exclamation point. 

d. Study each of the following sentences, tell- 
ing its kind and explaining the signs used to 
mark its beginning and end : 

i. How cold it is! 

2. Not all flowers are fragrant. 



MAKING SENTENCES 31 

3. The dam has burst ! 

4. The night is calm and cloudless. 

5. What a wonderful garden is here ! 

6. Why cross the gloomy firth to-day ? 

7. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 

8. She clad herself in a russet gown. 

9. Who was this that went from thee ? 

10. Two lonely hearts had come into their own in 
the House of the Seven Santas ! 



VI. MAKING SENTENCES 

a. Make two different sentences with each of 
the following words or groups of words as sub- 
jects. Use as many words in the predicates as 
you need to make your sentences interesting. 

(1) Lions . (6) Coral islands . 

(2) Rivers . (7) A boy's whistle . 

(3) Cars . (8) The Maine woods . 

(4) The wind . (9) Carloads of fruit . 

(5) Lochinvar . (10) The first spring flowers 

b. Make interesting sentences with the follow- 
ing words or groups of words as predicates, using 
as many words in the subjects as you wish. 
Mention other subjects that might be used. 

(1) flutter. (4) were playing. 

(2) kick. (5) fly away home. 

(3) is ringing. (6) drove two white 

horses. 



32 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(7) watched their (9) flows into the Gulf 

flocks by night. of Mexico. 

(8) are brought from (10) grow in sun and 

Florida. shower. 

c. Make interesting sentences in which you 
use the following groups of words : 

(1) grow in the fields 

(2) the old oak tree 

(3) had invited the robin to a party 

(4) are found in the ocean 

(5) while on my vacation at the beach this summer 

VII. POSITION OF THE SUBJECT 

It is of great practical value to distinguish 
the subject from the predicate in any sentence. 
This would never be hard if the subject always 
came first, as in the sentences we have been 
studying. But compare these sentences : 

The balloon went up. 
Up went the balloon. 

The thought in both of these sentences is the 
same. What is the subject in each sentence ? 
What is the predicate in each ? 

The subject of a sentence does not always precede the 
predicate. 

In the following sentences the subject of each is 
in italic ; all the other words belong to the predi- 
cate : 



POSITION OF THE SUBJECT 33 

How fast the snow falls ! 

Where do 'pineapples grow ? 

Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

Has every pupil in the class brought his books ? 

a. Let us study the following group of words : 

Up spoke our own little Mabel. 

This is a sentence because it expresses a complete 
thought about Mabel. 

The thought about Mabel is that she spoke up. 
The subject of the sentence is "Our own little 
Mabel," because it is the naming part. The predi- 
cate is "Up spoke," because it is the asserting part. 

In the same way study each of the following 
sentences : 

1. Boldly he entered the Netherby Hall. 

2. Then spoke the bride's father. 

3. Now tread we a measure. 

4. Down the road she tripped. 

5. Home they brought him slain with spears. 

6. How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank ! 

7. Here once the embattled farmers stood. 

8. Still sits the schoolhouse by the road. 

9. Somewhat back from the village street 
Stands the old-fashioned country-seat. 

10. Across its antique portico 

Tall poplar trees their shadows throw. 

b. Rewrite the following sentences, arranging 
the words so that the entire subject precedes the 
entire predicate, and underline the subject : 



34 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

i. Under a spreading chestnut tree the village 
smithy stands. 

2. Last night the moon had a golden ring. 

3. Over the river and through the wood to grand- 
father's house we go. 

4. In San Francisco I saw many Chinese. 

5. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 

c. Rewrite the following sentences, arranging 
the words so that the subjects do not come first, 
and underline the words that form the predicates : 

1. Three black crows sat on a tree. 

2. I stood on the bridge at midnight. 

3. Earth praises God with her thousand voices. 

4. Spring comes with soft and noiseless tread. 

5. The yellow sunflower stood by the brook in 
autumn beauty. 

VIII. THE SUBJECT SUBSTANTIVE 

No matter how long the entire subject of a sen- 
tence may be, there is always some word in it that 
is the principal or necessary word. 

In the following sentences note the single word 
which tells the subject of the thought. 

Subject Predicate 



Young Lochinvar came out of the West. 

The poor craven bridegroom said never a word. 

Predicate Subject 



Then spoke the bride's father. 



THE SUBJECT SUBSTANTIVE 35 

"Lochinvar," "bridegroom," and "father" are 
the principal words in the subjects of the sen- 
tences. The other words in the subjects might 
be omitted and the thoughts still be complete. 
Read the sentences without them. 

Now read the sentences without the words in 
italic ; do they still make sense ? This proves 
that the words in italics are the necessary or prin- 
cipal words in the subjects. 

A word used to denote something about which a speaker 
is thinking is called a Substantive. 

The principal word in the subject of a sentence is called 
the Subject Substantive. 

The subject substantive is sometimes called 
the Simple Subject. 

Here are some other examples of the subject 
substantive distinguished from the subject; the 
italicized word in each sentence is the subject 
substantive : 

Subject Predicate 



Trees of enormous size grow in California. 

Subject 

How fast the beautiful white snow falls ! 

Subject 

Has every pupil in the class brought his books ? 



36 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

IX. STUDYING SENTENCES FOR SUBJECT 
SUBSTANTIVES 

If you cannot quickly tell the subject substan- 
tive of a sentence, look for the predicate, which is 
usually easy to find. Then put who or what be- 
fore the predicate, forming a question. The single 
word answering that question is the subject sub- 
stantive. 

For example, in the sentence, "Then spoke 
the bride's father," the predicate is "spoke." 
Who or what spoke ? The father spoke. There- 
fore "father" is the subject substantive. 

a. Study the following sentence, pointing out 
the subject substantive : 

Lochinvar's matchless steed outdistanced all pursuers. 

This is a declarative sentence, because it states 
or declares something. 

"Lochinvar's matchless steed" is the subject 
of the sentence, because it is the naming part. 

"Outdistanced all pursuers" is the predicate, 
because it is the asserting part. 

"Steed" is the subject substantive, because it 
is the principal word in the subject. The other 
words in the subject might be omitted and a 
complete thought still remain. 



STUDYING SENTENCES 37 

b. Study the following sentence : 

When did you come? 

This is an interrogative sentence, because it 
asks a question. 

"You" is the subject of the sentence, because 
it is the naming part. 

"When did . . . come" is the predicate, be- 
cause it is the asking part. 

c. Study each of the following sentences, point- 
ing out in each the entire subject and the subject 
substantive. Then read each sentence, omitting 
the subject substantive. Is it still a sentence ? 

1. A brave man was Lochinvar. 

2. Light to the croupe the fair lady he swung. 

3. The lost bride of Netherby ne'er did they see. 

4. What did they say? 

5. Did the kinsmen try to follow the lovers? 

6. Valuable minerals are found in the Andes 
Mountains. 

7. Apple trees were white with fragrant blossoms. 

8. The stars glide ceaselessly upon their endless way. 

9. Many wild flowers bloom by the dusty roadside. 

10. How does your garden grow? 

11. Last summer a little green caterpillar lived in 
my grapevine. 

12. A large express company has the picture of a 
dog on all its wagons. 

13. Not far from the gateway was an old iron 
bridge. 



3 8 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

14. Beds of wild flowers surround his home. 

15. Never lose a chance of doing a kind deed. 

16. There groups of merry children played. 

17. Thousands of ants covered the hills in my wood 
yard. 

18. Have the children come home yet? 

19. Do your best every day of your life. 

20. What two parts does every sentence contain? 



X. THE VERB 

However long the predicate of a sentence may 
be, it always contains a principal or necessary word. 

Read each of the following groups of words. 
Are they sentences as they stand ? 

Young Lochinvar out of the West. 

He all alone. 

The poor craven bridegroom never a word. 

Then the bride's father. 

Red as a rose she. 

In the following sentences note the principal 
word, which asserts something of the subject : 
Subject Predicate 



Young Lochinvar came out of the West. 

He rode all alone. 

The poor craven Bridegroom said never a word. 
Predicate Subject 



Then spoke the bride's father. 

Red as a rose was she. 



THE VERB 39 

rode," "said," "spoke," and "was" 
are the principal words in the predicates of the 
sentences. Without them there would be no 
assertions. The other words in each predicate 
might be omitted, and an assertion of some kind 
still remain. Read the sentences again, omitting 
from the predicates the words that do not assert. 

A word used to assert is called a Verb. 

The verb is the essential word of the predicate. 
Usually it denotes action, either of the body or 
of the mind ; but sometimes the verb denotes 
condition or existence: as, "My lady sleeps ; she is 
in her room; she seems very well." Sometimes 
the verb links something to the subject as an 
assertion about it. 

The verb in an interrogative sentence asks instead of 
asserts. 

Here are some other examples of the verb dis- 
tinguished from the predicate by italics : 
Subject Predicate 



I am in the seventh grade. 

Our school is a busy place. 

The desks are in rows. 

No girls were late this morning. 

Who was here early? 

Pictures cover the walls. 



40 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

XL STUDYING SENTENCES FOR SUBJECT 
SUBSTANTIVE AND VERB 

a. Study the following sentence and point out 
the entire subject, the subject substantive, the 
predicate, and the verb: 

Through all the wide border his steed was the best. 

This is a declarative sentence because it states 
or declares something. 

"His steed" is the subject of the sentence, be- 
cause it is the naming part. "Steed" is the 
subject substantive, because it is the principal 
word in the subject. 

The predicate is "Through all the wide border 
was the best," because it is the asserting part of 
the sentence. The verb is "was," because it is 
the word used to assert. 

b. Study the following sentence : 

Where were you ? 

This is an interrogative sentence, because it 
asks a question. "You" is the subject of the 
sentence, because it is the naming part. It is 
also the subject substantive. 

The predicate is "were where," because it is 
the asking part of the sentence. The verb is 
"were," because it is the word used to ask. 



STUDYING SENTENCES 41 

c. Study each of the following sentences, point- 
ing out the entire subject, the subject substantive, 
the predicate, and the verb : 

1. Stars twinkle brightly on frosty nights. 

2. Habit is second nature. 

3. Good actions ennoble us. 

4. The lark sings at heaven's gate. 

5. A good man always does his duty. 

6. Out of the north the wild news came. 

7. Are your parents at home? 

8. Wounds made by words are hard to heal. 

9. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax. 
10. Here were forests ancient as the hills. 

d. Make a list of the verbs in the following 
paragraph. Then read the paragraph, omitting 
all the verbs, and note how much is lost. 

Down the room advanced Lochinvar and fair Ellen. 
When they reached the hall door Lochinvar whispered 
in Ellen's ear. Then swiftly through the door they 
sped. There stood Lochinvar's matchless steed. 
Quickly the knight lifted Ellen to the charger's back ; 
and quickly he mounted before her. The astonished 
guests stood speechless for a moment. Then they 
rushed to their horses and were off in swift pursuit. 
But it was useless. Not one came within sight of the 
lost bride of Netherby. 

e. Make lists of all the verbs you can think of 
that might be used to make assertions about the 
following subjects. Write them out like this : 



42 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

' rode, 
swam, 
alighted. 
Lochinvar \ entered, 
spoke, 
wooed, 
danced. 

1. The wind 6. Farmers 

2. A train 7. An automobile 

3. Leaves 8. Policemen 

4. Clouds 9. Mice 

5. Thunder 10. A horse 

/. Here is a paragraph from which the verbs 
have been omitted. Fill the blanks with the 
most suitable verbs you can think of : 

I on through the bog, and into another 

wood and upon a well-marked road. It darker 

and darker. My donkey the pace of her own 

accord, and from that time forward me no trouble. 

At the same time, the wind into half a gale, and 

another heavy discharge of rain down. At the 

other side of the wood I some red windows in 

the dusk. Here I a delightful old man, who 

a little way with me in the rain and me to the 

right road. 

XII. COMPOUND SUBJECTS 

(a) Skating is a winter sport. 
Sleighing is a winter sport. 
Coasting is a winter sport. 

(b) Skating, sleighing, and coasting are winter sports. 



COMPOUND PREDICATES 43 

Which do you like better, the group of three 
sentences under (a), or the one sentence under 
(b) ? The three sentences under (a) are slow 
and tiresome, because they repeat three times the 
same predicate, "is a winter sport." The need- 
less repetition of words wastes time and is weari- 
some. 

In sentence (b) there are three different subjects 
used with one predicate. What are the three 
subjects ? What is the one predicate ? 

Two or more subjects having the same predicate form a 
Compound Subject. 

Here are some other examples of a compound 
subject : 

Compound Subject Predicate 

Flowers and ferns grow by the wayside. 

The mountain and the squirrel had a quarrel. 

Thoughts can often be expressed more briefly 
and agreeably by the use of a compound subject. 

XIII. COMPOUND PREDICATES 
Read the following : 

(1) The two men rushed to the boat. 
The two men seized the oars. 
The two men pushed off. 

The two men reached the child just in time. 

(2) The two men rushed to the boat, seized the oars, 
pushed off, and reached the child just in time. 



44 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Which shows greater speed, the group of four 
sentences under (i) or the sentence (2) ? What 
is the subject in (2) ? W T hat are the four predi- 
cates ? 

Two or more predicates having the same subject form a 
Compound Predicate. 

Here are some other examples : 

Subject Compound Predicate 



Charity suffer eth long and is kind. 

The horses took fright and ran away. 

Compound Subject Compound Predicate 



The horses and the cattle took fright and ran away. 

a. Let us study the following sentence : 

The meadow brook laughs and chatters on its way. 

The subject of the sentence is "The meadow 
brook." The subject substantive is "brook." 

The predicate is compound, because it consists 
of two predicates having the same subject. The 
first predicate is the verb "laughs." 

The second predicate is "chatters on its way." 

The verb in the second predicate is "chatters." 

b. Study in the same way each of the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. Agnes sings well and dances beautifully. 

2. Carrie dances but doesn't sing. 



SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES 45 

3. Our little brown spaniel barked loudly and rushed 
at the stranger. 

4. The authors of books talk to us, give us their 
most precious thoughts, and pour their souls into ours. 

5. And then my heart with pleasure fills 
And dances with the daffodils. 

XIV. USE OF COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND 
PREDICATES 

Rapidity of action can often be expressed by the use of 
a compound predicate. 

a. Victor Hugo, in the following sentences de- 
scribing the activity of a cannon that has broken 
loose on shipboard, uses the compound predicate 
most effectively : 

This mass turns upon its wheels ; has the rapid 
movements of a billiard ball ; rolls with the rolling ; 
pitches with the pitching ; goes, comes, pauses, seems 
to meditate ; resumes its course, rushes along the ship 
from end to end like an arrow, circles about, springs 
aside, evades, rears, breaks, kills. . . . The horrid 
cannon flings itself about, advances, recoils, strikes 
to the right, strikes to the left, flees, passes, breaks 
down obstacles, crushes men like flies. 

Point out the subject substantives in these sen- 
tences from Victor Hugo. 

In the two compound predicates of the above 
sentences there are twenty-five verbs. What are 
they ? 



46 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

b. Combine the sentences in each of the follow- 
ing groups into a single sentence containing a 
compound subject or a compound predicate. Re- 
member to use commas to separate the words of 
the compound parts. 

(i) Mothers weep for the dead soldiers. 
Wives weep for the dead soldiers. 
Sisters weep for the dead soldiers. 
Children weep for the dead soldiers. 

What part of the one sentence made from the 
sentences in group (i) is compound ? 

What effect has the change upon the thought ? 

(2) The stag sniffed the air. 
The stag sprang to his feet. 
The stag gazed about him. 
The stag bounded away. 
The stag disappeared in the thicket. 

What part of the one sentence made from the 
sentences in group (2) is compound ? 

What effect has the change upon the thought ? 

c. Tennyson uses the compound subject and 
compound predicate in the following sentence. 
What effect has he produced ? 

Cannon to right of them, 
Cannon to left of them, 
Cannon in front of them, 
Volleyed and thundered. 



SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES 47 

d. Find the compound parts in the following 
sentences from The Life of Robert Louis Stevenson: 

(1) In his infancy his mother and his nurse Cummie 
soothed and tended him. 

(2) Ill-health, overwork, penury, loneliness, and the 
great strain of anxiety overpowered the brave fighter. 

Rewrite one of the quotations above, using 
simple instead of compound parts. Then com- 
pare what you have written with the original 
quotation. Which reads better ? 

e. Express the following thoughts more briefly 
by using compound subjects or predicates: 

(1) John went to the city and so did Harry. 

(2) Harry saved his money and so he became rich. 
Then he made a home for his mother. 

(3) His mother lived on Main Street. He lived 
there too. 

(4) He shook his head. Then he picked up his 
bundle, and he walked away. 

/. Write sentences containing — 

1. Two or more subjects of the same verb con- 
nected by and. 

2. Two or more subjects of the same verb con- 
nected by or. 

3. Two or more predicates with the same sub- 
ject connected by and, or, or but. 



CHAPTER THREE 

TOPICS, PARAGRAPHS, OUTLINES 
I. WHAT A TOPIC IS 

If we speak of the subject of a story, we mean 
the person or thing it tells about. If we speak of 
the subject of a conversation, we mean the person 
or thing spoken about. 

Subject is the broad word for anything written 
or spoken about, such as, "School Buildings." 

But a general subject, like "School Buildings," 
includes different parts, or particular subjects : 
such as, Early School Buildings, Modern School 
Buildings, Iowa School Buildings. 

A particular subject, like "Early School Build- 
ings," may include still narrower subjects or parts 
of the subject: such as, (i) the schoolhouse, 
(2) heating arrangements, (3) seating arrange- 
ments. 

A narrow subject or part of a subject is called a Topic. 

Mention at least three interesting topics sug- 
gested by each of the following subjects : 
48 



WHAT A PARAGRAPH IS 49 

1. Stories. 3. Knights. 5. Flowers. 7. A dance. 

2. Books. 4. Lochinvar. 6. Money. 8. A ball game. 
9. How to make a cake. 10. How to make a box. 

II. WHAT A PARAGRAPH IS 

If we are reading about Early School Buildings, 
it is a great convenience to have all the sentences 
about the building itself put in one group, and in 
another group all the sentences about the heat- 
ing; and all the sentences about the seats, the 
hours, and the study rules in three other separate 
groups ; so that we may read about one topic at 
a time. 

All good winters and speakers group together 
the sentences relating to a single topic. 

A group of closely related sentences developing a single 
topic is called a Paragraph. 

Another great convenience in reading is to be 
able to tell at a glance where one topic ends and 
another begins. 

All good writers show a change of topic by indenting the 
first line of each paragraph. 

To indent means to notch, like teeth. 

The word paragraph means "a stroke in the 
margin," which was the old way of showing a 
change of topic. Sometimes we still show a 
change of topic by using in the margin the sign If. 



5 o THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Remember that a paragraph is a group of closely 
related sentences about a single topic. The inden- 
tion is only a sign to the eye. You cannot make 
sentences closely related just by indenting the first 
of them. 

A paragraph develops a topic. Indention shows 
the beginning of a new topic. 

There should be as many paragraphs in a composition as 
there are topics treated ; and the first word of every written 
paragraph should be indented. 

Beware of using indention as a false sign. Use 
it as a true sign, showing a real change of topic. 

III. STUDYING PARAGRAPHS FOR TOPICS 

Read carefully the following description of 
Early School Buildings, and see how Miss Craw- 
ford has grouped together the sentences relating 
to each topic, and shown the change from one 
topic to another by indention. 

Early School Buildings 

The most cheerful thing about those early school 
buildings was the color they were painted. Latterly 
there has been an attempt to shatter one of our cherished 
New England traditions by asserting that this color was 
not red. But the weight of evidence is all on the other 
side ; the " little red schoolhouse " remains. It was 



STUDYING PARAGRAPHS FOR TOPICS 51 

usually one small one-room building — this school- 
house — which was entered through a shed-like hall- 
way in which wood was piled and where hats, coats, 
and dinner pails were stored. (Topic : the building 
itself.) 

Sometimes the wood was furnished by the parents, 
the child with a stingy father being then, by common 
consent, denied intimate relations with the fire. After 
the time of fireplaces a large square stove in the center 
of the room was the usual method of heating. From 
this a long pipe, suspended by chains, reached to the 
end of the building where the chimney stood. Fre- 
quently this primitive heating-plant had to cope with 
the problem of raising the temperature from twelve 
below zero, when school opened, to a temperature 
favorable to " wrighting." (Topic : the heating^.) 

The first seats in the little red schoolhouse were 
planks set on legs. These were sometimes taken out 
at noontime, turned bottom upward, and used for 
sliding down hill on the snow crust. Later, there were 
benches with vertical backs set at right angles to the 
seats, torturing things for a child to sit on during the 
long sessions kept by some of these early schools, 
" nine hours a day in summer, six days a week." 
(Topic : the seats.) 

New Haven held school from " 6 in ye morning, to 
11 a clock in ye forenoon, and from 1 a clock in the 
afternoon to 5 a clock in the afternoon in Summer and 
4 in Winter." Salem, Massachusetts, received a gift 
of a bell from England in 1723, which, we learn, rang 
for school at seven in the morning from March to 
November, and at eight from November to March. 
School here closed at four in Winter and at five in 



52 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Summer. But when the schoolroom door once was 
shut, dull care was left behind. (Topic : the hours.) 

There was no home study in those days! Not only 
did the pupils get their lessons and recite them in the 
schoolroom, but they also wrote their compositions 
there, and — as soon as education had developed to 
that point — did a good deal of general reading be- 
sides. Thus the evenings were free for the sleigh-rides, 
candy-parties, and skating which assured to our New 
England forbears clear eyes and rosy cheeks. (Topic : 
the study.) 

— Mary Caroline Crawford * 

a. Let us study the first paragraph in "Early 
School Buildings." 

The first sentence tells us that the buildings 
were painted a cheerful color. The second sen- 
tence tells us that some persons have said this 
color was not red. The third sentence asserts 
that the color really was red. The fourth and 
last sentence tells the size and arrangement of the 
schoolhouse. 

These four sentences all relate to the color, 
size, and arrangement of the building. They 
form a paragraph developing the topic, The build- 
ing itself. 

b. Study in the same way each of the other 
paragraphs in "Early School Buildings." 

*From Social Life in Old New England. Copyright, 1914, by Little, 
Brown & Co. 



DESCRIPTION FROM AN OUTLINE 53 

IV. OUTLINES 

The plan of the last selection may be shown by 
writing the subject and the topics of the para- 
graphs, one below the other : thus, 

Early School Buildings 

1. The building itself. 

2. The heating. 

3. The seats. 

4. The hours. 

5. The study. 

A sketch of the plan of a composition is called an Outline. 

Outlines are a great help to speakers and writers. 
A successful speaker and writer always has in his 
mind a clear outline of what he wishes to say. 
Very often he writes it down, studies it, and care- 
fully revises it, in order that his speech or writing 
may be arranged in the best way, contain all that 
is needed, and omit everything else. 

In some books the topic of each paragraph is 
printed in prominent type before the beginning of 
the paragraph, or in the margin. 

V. DESCRIPTION FROM AN OUTLINE 

a. Following the outline that we made from 
"Early School Buildings," describe in five para- 
graphs "A Modern School Building." You may 



54 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

describe your own, or any other school building 
with which you are familiar. 

b. Select a subject from the following list, and 
think about the different things included in it. 
How many interesting topics can you find in it ? 
Make an outline for an interesting talk on the 
chosen subject. 

1. A rainy day. 

2. The woods. 

3. Mountains. 

4. The ocean. 

5. An old man I know. 

6. Early transportation. 

7. An attractive gown. 

8. The new fashions for women. 

9. Airplanes. 

10. The Great War. 

11. Books. 

12. Farming. 

13. Photography. 

14. Manual Training. 

c. Let several outlines be copied on the board. 
Are the topics they name interesting ? Are they 
fairly complete ? Do they contain anything un- 
important ? Are they well arranged ? 

d. Improve your own outline in any way you 
can, and then give your classmates an interesting 
talk on the subject. How will you begin ? How 
will you end ? 



NOTING CHANGES IN TOPICS 55 

VI. NOTING CHANGES IN TOPICS 

Below is a short selection on "The Indus- 
tries of Canada." The author wrote this as 
seven paragraphs, and indented the first line of 
each paragraph to show the changes of topic. 
Here it is printed without indention. Can you 
tell where each paragraph begins and ends ? 
Remember that a paragraph consists of a sentence 
or a group of sentences developing a single topic. 
Here is an outline of the selection : 

1. Ownership. 4. Forests. 6. Wheat. 

2. Climate. 5. Farming. 7. Mining. 

3. Fishing. 

The Industries of Canada 

Canada is a British colony; and Newfoundland and 
Labrador also belong to England, but are separate 
from Canada. Much of this region is cold and bleak ; 
but the southern part resembles the northern United 
States in climate and soil, so that the products on the 
two sides of the boundary may be expected to corre- 
spond. Fishing was found to be an important industry 
along the New England coast ; so it is also in Nova 
Scotia and Newfoundland. Maine in the East and 
Washington in the West are covered with vast forests. 
Forests extend into Canada, covering a large part of 
it, and in fact they reach northward for several hundred 
miles until the climate becomes so cold that trees can 
no longer grow. New York and Ohio are noted for 



56 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

their fruit, dairying, and farming. Ontario, or the 
part of Canada just north of these States, has the 
same products. The best wheat fields in the United 
States are in Minnesota and the two Dakotas ; so 
Manitoba is the best wheat region in Canada. . . . 
The western mountains of the United States contain 
much gold, silver, and .other metals ; it is the same 
with the mountains of Canada. The Klondike region 
should be remembered as a part of Canada, although 
it was mentioned in connection with the United States. 
(From Tarr & McMurry 's Geographies) 

Mention the words that should begin separate 
paragraphs. 

Whenever your teacher wishes to call your at- 
tention to a change of topic in your composition, 
she will do so by writing the paragraph sign (^[) 
at the place where a new paragraph should begin. 
Before rewriting and indenting the paragraph, 
ask yourself : Why should a new-paragraph begin 
here ? What new topic is taken up ? 

VII. THE TOPIC SENTENCE 

A short composition, oral or written, developing 
only one topic, naturally consists of only erne 
paragraph. A longer composition, developing 
more than one topic, consists of a succession of 
paragraphs. In either case, the excellence of the 
speech or writing will depend chiefly on the ex- 
cellence of the separate paragraphs. 



THE TOPIC SENTENCE 57 

One thing that makes a good paragraph is a 
clear statement of what it is about. The subject 
of the following paragraph is stated in the first 
sentence. 

Insects generally lead a jovial life. Think what it 
must be to lodge in a lily. Imagine a palace of ivory 
and pearl, with pillars of silver and capitals of gold, 
and exhaling such a perfume as never arose from 
human censer. Fancy again the fun of tucking one's 
self up for the night in the folds of a rose, rocked to 
sleep by the gentle sighs of summer air, nothing to do 
when you are awake but to wash yourself in a dewdrop, 
and fall to eating your bedclothes. 

The indention shows the beginning of a new 
topic. What that topic is we discover from the 
first sentence, "Insects generally lead a jovial 
life." From this sentence we learn that this 
paragraph is about the jolly life of insects. Each 
of the other sentences gives an illustration of the 
jolly life of insects. Make a list of the illustrations. 

A sentence that presents the topic of a paragraph is called 
a Topic Sentence. 

A speaker or writer is more easily understood if he states 
the topic of each paragraph at or near the beginning of 
the paragraph. 

Sometimes the topic is put at the end of a para- 
graph, as a summing up. 



58 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

VIII. NEWSPAPER TOPIC SENTENCES AND 
PARAGRAPHS 

Look at a newspaper and notice that frequently 
a short topic sentence, set in heavy type as a 
headline or kind of title, precedes the paragraph 
that develops it. 

The purpose of the use of the topic sentence 
as a headline in a newspaper is to attract atten- 
tion ; to help the hurried reader to get the gist of 
the news at a glance ; to enable him to determine 
quickly what paragraphs he will probably find in- 
teresting. 

a. Here are some topic sentences taken from a 
newspaper. Select one and from imagination 
write a paragraph developing it : 

(i) Auto Driver is Fined $20. 

(2) Naval Academy is Urged for the Pacific Coast. 

(3) Telephone Girls Fight Fire. 

(4) A Wireless Phone Will Link United States and 
Japan. 

(5) Gladden Lumber Plant Burns. 

(6) Brakeman Proves a Hero. 

(7) Boy Stole to Save Baby from Starving. 

(8) Boy Saves the Express. 

b. From a newspaper select and bring to class 
at least six topic sentences. 

c. Make six topic sentences, such as a news- 
paper might use, about occurrences that you have 



MAKING TOPIC SENTENCES 59 

observed — at school, on the way to school, at 
home. 

IX. MAKING TOPIC SENTENCES 

In the following paragraphs the topic is not 
stated. Compose for each paragraph a topic 
sentence which might be used at the beginning 
to let the reader know what the paragraph is 
about — what topic is developed in it. 

(1) The heavens were growing grayer and grayer, 
and the sun hid itself so well that one couldn't imagine 
where it was. The rain fell faster and faster and beat 
harder and harder against the panes. The earth was 
hidden by fogs ; lakes, mountains, and woods floated 
together in an indistinct maze, and the landmarks 
could not be distinguished. 

(2) The lamps under the wayside crosses were blown 
out. The roads were sheets of ice. The impenetrable 
darkness hid every trace of habitations. There was 
no living thing abroad. 

(3) With the son of the house the cockatoo was 
generally at war ; she often bit him, and was always 
ready to show fight. With her mistress she was on 
her good behavior, for she recognized her as the law- 
giver for pets, and the locker-up of cages ; she obeyed 
her more readily than any other person. But her 
darling was the master, who let her do as she liked, 
and petted and coddled her always. On his knee she 
would sit an hour at a time perfectly quiet, satisfied to 
be near him. 



60 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

X. HOW PARAGRAPHS GROW 

The enlargement or development of the topic 
sentence by the addition of other sentences makes 
the paragraph. Each added sentence must help 
to develop the topic, or make it clear. There 
must be as many sentences as are necessary for 
the purpose, and no more. 

A topic sentence may be enlarged or developed into 
a paragraph in the following ways : 
(i) By giving details. 

(2) By giving illustrations or instances. 

(3) By giving reasons. 

(4) By giving comparisons or contrasts. 

XI. ANALYZING PARAGRAPHS FOR WAYS 
OF GROWTH 

Let us see how the following paragraphs grew. 
In the first an Indian, King Philip, is supposed to 
be speaking : 

a. 

Stranger, the land is mine. I understand not these 
paper rights. I gave not my consent when, for a few 
baubles, these broad regions were purchased of my 
fathers. They could sell what was theirs ; they could 
sell no more. How could my fathers sell what the 
Great Spirit had sent me into the world to live upon ? 
They knew not what they did. 

— Edward Everett 



ANALYZING PARAGRAPHS 61 

In the above paragraph the topic is announced 
in the first sentence. " Stranger, the land is mine," 
is a topic sentence. Through the sentences that 
follow, King Philip explains and defends his 
ownership of the land by giving reasons. 

(i) He does not admit the white man's deed, " paper 
rights." 

(2) He gave no consent to the sale of the lands by 
his fathers. 

(3) His fathers could sell their own right to live upon 
the lands, but no more. 

(4) His fathers could not sell his right, which he 
had from the Great Spirit himself, to " live upon " 
the land. 

(5) The fathers knew not what they did. 

Note how the Indian's idea of ownership of the 
land, asserted in the topic sentence, is developed 
— made clear and strong — by the reason men- 
tioned in each added sentence. 

b. 
It is the Indian Summer. The rising sun blazes 
through the misty air like a conflagration. A yellowish, 
smoky haze fills the atmosphere, 

And a filmy mist 
Lies like a silver lining on the sky. 

The wind is soft and low. It wafts to us the odor of 
the forest leaves, that hang wilted on the dripping 
branches, or drop into the stream. The gorgeous 
tints are gone, as if the autumnal rains had washed 



62 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

them out. Orange, yellow, and scarlet, all are changed 
to one melancholy russet hue. The birds too have 
taken wing, and have left their roofless dwellings. 
Not the whistle of a robin, not the twitter of an eaves- 
dropping swallow, not the carol of one sweet, familiar 
voice. All gone. Only the dismal cawing of a crow, 
as he sits and curses that the harvest is over ; or the 
chit-chat of an idle squirrel, the noisy denizen of a 
hollow tree, the mendicant friar of a large parish, the 
absolute monarch of a dozen acorns. 

— Longfellow 

The first sentence, "It is the Indian Summer," 
is the topic sentence. The sentences that follow, 
making up the paragraph, paint the picture of the 
Indian summer by giving details. What detail 
does each sentence contribute to the picture ? 

Make an outline of the details, using as few 
words as possible. You might begin thus : 

Topic: Indian Summer. 
Details: I. Blazing sun. 

2. Misty air. 

3. Smoky haze. 

etc. 



It is sad indeed to reflect on the disasters which this 
little band of Pilgrims encountered. Sad to see a por- 
tion of them the prey of unrelenting cupidity, treacher- 
ously embarked in an unseaworthy ship, which they 
are soon obliged to abandon, and crowd themselves 
into one vessel ; one hundred persons, besides the 



ANALYZING PARAGRAPHS 63 

ship's company, in a vessel of one hundred and sixty- 
tons. One is touched at the story of the long, cold 
and weary autumnal passage ; of the landing on the 
inhospitable rocks at this dismal season, where they 
are deserted before long by the ship which had brought 
them, and which seemed their only hold upon the 
world of fellowmen — a prey to the elements and to 
want, and fearfully ignorant of the numbers, the power, 
and the temper of the savage tribes that filled the un- 
explored continent upon whose verge they had ventured. 

— Edward Everett 

A written outline of the above paragraph might 
read as follows : 

Topic : Disasters of the Pilgrims. 
Topic sentence: " It is sad indeed to reflect on the 
disasters which this little band of Pilgrims encountered." 

Instances : 

(1) The starting on an unseaworthy ship. 

(2) The forced abandonment of the unseaworthy 
vessel. 

(3) The crowding of the whole company into a single 
small vessel. 

(4) The long, cold, and weary passage in autumn. 

(5) The landing on inhospitable rocks in a dismal 
season. 

(6) Their desertion by the ship which had brought 
them. 

(7) Their loneliness, at the mercy of the storms and 
in need of food and shelter. 

(8) Their ignorance of the number, the power, and 
the temper of the savage tribes. 



64 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

XII. WRITING AN OUTLINE OF A PARA- 
GRAPH 

Read the following paragraph, and write an 
outline of it. Take one of the outlines given 
above as a guide : 

I spent a great deal of time and pains to make an 
umbrella. I spoiled two or three before I contrived 
one to my mind. The main difficulty was to make it 
let down. I could make it spread, but if it did not 
let down too, it would not be portable for me any way 
except over my head. However, at last I made one 
to answer. I covered it with skins, the hair upward, 
so that it cast off the rain like a roof and kept off the 
sun so effectively that I could walk out in the hottest 
of the weather, and when I had no need of it I could 
close it, and carry it under my arm. 

— Robinson Crusoe 

What is the topic ? What is the topic sentence ? 
How is the topic developed — by details, in- 
stances, reasons, or comparisons ? 

XIII. PLANNING PARAGRAPHS 

Paragraphs do not come full grown into the 
mind of the speaker or writer. At the beginning 
he has only a general idea of something he wishes 
to say or write. Before he can make this general 
idea into a good paragraph or series of paragraphs, 
he must think and plan. 



PLANNING PARAGRAPHS 65 

No better way of planning a speech or piece of 
writing has ever been hit on than that of Benjamin 
Franklin. His way was this : 

1. To set down brief notes of his observations and 
thoughts on the topic, in the order in which they oc- 
curred to him. 

2. To strike out those observations and thoughts 
which were not needed for the clear development of 
the topic. 

3. To rearrange his notes in what seemed the best 
order for presentation. 

Anything not directly connected with the topic must be 
kept out of the paragraph. 

Events are naturally arranged in the order of their 
occurrence or time. 

Details are naturally arranged in the order of their 
prominence. 

First we note details that are prominent because 
they are large, near, or bright; those that are 
small or distant are noted last. 

Illustrations and reasons are most interesting when 
arranged in climax, beginning with the less important and 
ending with the more important. 

If you think out beforehand a simple outline 
for each of your paragraphs, you will find it much 
easier to make your paragraphs clear and interest- 
ing, and to keep out things that do not belong in 
them. The following outline will show you how 
to plan a paragraph : 



66 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Topic: A Popular Song 

Topic sentence: All day I was haunted by the 
refrain of a popular song. 

Development by giving details and instances : 
Milkman whistled it. 
Cook sang it. 

Small brother attempted it. 
School orchestra played it. 
I succumbed to its influence. 

a. Write a paragraph from the above outline. 
In composing your sentences you might use some 
of the following introductory words : 

I was awakened at half past four by . 

As I dressed I heard the cook . 

At the breakfast table my small brother . 

Arriving at school . 

As I prepared for bed I found myself . 

b. Which of the points mentioned in the follow- 
ing outline should be omitted from the paragraph ? 
Explain why. 

Topic : The Inventions of Edison. 
Topic sentence: Thomas Alva Edison is the greatest 
inventor in the history of mankind. 

Electric Lamp. 

Phonograph. 

Home in Orange. 

Telephone Transmitter. 

Born 1847. 

Electric Storage Battery. 

Deafness. 






PARAGRAPH TALKS 67 

c. Have you ever wished you had a hundred 
dollars to spend as you pleased ? Have you ever 
thought out what you would do with it ? Your 
classmates would be interested in your plan for 
spending it. Make an outline of your plan. 

Several of the outlines may be copied on the 
board and criticized by the class for their arrange- 
ment, omissions, and any points not needed. 

d. After the outlines have been studied and 
criticized, improve your own outline. Then, with 
it in your mind, describe in a short talk your plan 
for spending a hundred dollars. 

e. Write your plan in an interesting letter to 
your father or mother. 

XIV. PARAGRAPH TALKS 

a. Make an outline for a talk to your class- 
mates on one of the following topics. Think care- 
fully about the subject and its different parts. 
Then follow Benjamin Franklin's way of planning 
a talk. 

Perhaps your outline may be copied on the 
board and criticized by the class. 

1. Studying While Sister is Practicing. 

2. Buying Christmas Presents with a Limited Al- 
lowance. 

3. My Stamp Collection (or any other collection). 



68 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

4. Keeping a Canary and a Cat in the Same House. 

5. The Joys of a Long Trip by Canoe (or Auto- 
mobile or Steamship or Train). 

6. Why Grown-ups Misunderstand Children. 

7. How to Entertain the Baby (Indoors, Out of 
Doors). 

8. Making Use of Odd Moments. 

9. My Experiences in Earning Money. 

10. The Origin of Nicknames. 

11. What I Should Like to Invent. 

12. " Order is Heaven's First Law." 

13. " A Little Bird Told Me." 

14. My Dog. 

15. The Advantages of Having a Brother (a Sister). 

16. The People I Like. 

17. People Who Win. 

18. Kickers. 

19. Playing Fair. 

20. My Favorite Poem. 

21. Our Old Photographs. 

22. My Baby Picture. 

23. My First Umbrella. 

24. The Joy of Collecting. 

25. Some Superstitions. 

26. The Traits I Admire Most in Men (Women, 
Children). 

b. Give the talk which you have outlined, as a 
little speech to the members of your class. When 
you have finished, the class will tell you what 
they liked about it, and how it could be improved. 
Speak so that all may hear you. 



BEGINNING OF A PARAGRAPH 69 

XV. THE BEGINNING, THE MIDDLE, AND 
THE ENDING OF A PARAGRAPH 

a. The newspaper writer, as we have seen, tries 
to catch the reader's attention by the first 
sentence, the topic sentence of his paragraph. 
For this purpose he makes this sentence as in- 
teresting as possible. This is just what all writers 
should try to do — to interest the reader with 
the very first sentence. The boy critic of the 
library, you recall, made this the first test of a 
story — an interesting beginning. 

Consider the opening sentence of each of the 
numbered paragraphs below. Does it arouse your 
interest ? Does it make you think of what may 
follow ? Does it make you want to read on ? 

(1) She was a dream of beauty. Her eyes were 
bright and shining. Her hair was like spun gold. 
Her lips were like rubies, but her boots needed blacking. 

(2) On Saturday John Storms saved a comrade from 
death. He and his friend, Charles Waite, were skating 
on Green Pond. John had many other friends, but 
only Charles was with him on Saturday. Young 
Waite did not see an air-hole before him, and suddenly 
found himself in the water. Storms kept his head. 
He rushed to the bank, caught up a long pole that lay 
there, and returned to the aid of his friend. After 
strenuous efforts by both boys, Waite was rescued. 
Then the two boys went home to dinner. 



70 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(3) Beauty is a fairy. Sometimes she hides herself 
in a flower-cup or under a leaf, or creeps into the old 
ivy and plays hide-and-seek with the sunbeams, or 
haunts some ruined spot, or laughs out of a bright 
young face. Sometimes she takes the form of a white 
cloud, and goes dancing over the green fields, or the 
deep blue sea, where her misty form, marked out in a 
momentary darkness, looks like the passing shadow 
of an angel's wing. 

The first sentence of a paragraph should be as interest- 
ing as possible. 

b. As a paragraph is written to discuss a single 
topic, every sentence in that paragraph should 
contribute something of importance to the dis- 
cussion of that topic. Such sentences give the 
reader the feeling of progress as he reads, and 
lead into the feeling of completeness when he 
reaches the end of the paragraph. All sentences, 
or parts of sentences, that bring in ideas not 
necessary to the topic under discussion, distract 
the reader's thought and interrupt progress. 

Study carefully the numbered paragraphs above 
and ask of each : Does every sentence contribute 
something of importance to the development of 
the topic ? Does any sentence, or part of a 
sentence, lead the mind away from the topic ? 

Every sentence in a paragraph should contribute some- 
thing interesting to the development of the topic. 



PARAGRAPHS FROM TOPIC SENTENCES 71 

c. Just as a good climax of a story leaves the 
reader with the feeling of completeness, the feeling 
that there is no more to tell, so the climax of a 
paragraph should give the impression of complete- 
ness in the discussion of the topic of that paragraph. 

Read again carefully the numbered paragraphs 
above. Ask of each : Does it end in a good climax ? 
Does it make you feel that enough has been said on 
that topic ? 

The ending of a paragraph should give the impression 
of completeness. 

XVI. MAKING PARAGRAPHS FROM TOPIC 
SENTENCES 

a. He might easily have passed for Santa Claus. 
Enlarge this topic sentence into a paragraph 

by adding sentences telling the particulars or 
details in which "he" so resembled Santa Claus 
that he might "easily have passed" for him. 
Think of the most striking characteristics of 
Santa Claus : hair and beard, eyes, smile ; fond- 
ness for children ; giving presents ; carrying a, 
pack. Tell them in a natural order. 

b. She was a true Cinderella. 

Enlarge the above topic sentence into a para- 
graph by describing in detail her resemblance to 
Cinderella. 



72 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

c. Nature had been very kind to the little valley. 
From this topic sentence make a paragraph 

giving illustrations of how nature had been kind 
to the little valley. Perhaps it was rich in trees, 
flowers, a winding brook, and singing birds. 

d. It is necessary to care for the teeth. 

From this topic sentence make a paragraph 
telling reasons why it is necessary to care for the 
teeth. 

e. A selfish person is his own worst enemy. 
Why? 

/. Mother showed me how to make bread. 
How ? 

XVII. WRITING A PARAGRAPH FROM A 
TOPIC SENTENCE 

Choose one of the following topic sentences and 
enlarge it into a paragraph. Indent your para- 
graph : 

i. The city wakes slowly. 

Give in order of time the particulars or details 
that show the city is waking. 

2. Most of us make unnecessary mistakes in 
grammar. 

What are some of these mistakes ? 



CONNECTED PARAGRAPHS 73 

3. Only a brave man can be an aviator. 
Why? 

4. We should have more spelling matches in school. 
Give reasons. 

5. Skating is a healthful exercise. 
Give reasons. 

6. I can improve my composition. 
How ? 

7. I taught myself to swim. 
How ? 

8. Making maple sugar is great fun. 

9. Every boy should learn to use his hands. 

10. Every girl should learn how to sew. 

11. Boys should know how to cook. 

12. Saturday is my happiest day. 

13. Summer is the best season of the year. 

14. I like only honest people. 

15. The river is our greatest joy. 

16. Life in the country is delightful. 

XVIII. CONNECTED PARAGRAPHS 

In a series of paragraphs, the connection between them 
should be made plain. The development of one topic should 
lead naturally and easily to the topic developed in the next 
paragraph. 

Notice how closely Miss Crawford connected 
the paragraphs about "Early School Buildings" 
(page 50). The first paragraph, describing the 



74 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

schoolhouse, ends with a sentence in which the 
piled-up wood is mentioned ; the second para- 
graph tells about the heating of the building, for 
which the wood was used. The second paragraph 
closes with a reference to "wrighting" (writing); 
the third describes the seats at which the children 
wrote. 

How does paragraph three lead into paragraph 
four ? How does paragraph four lead into para- 
graph five ? 

XIX. THE CONVERSATION PARAGRAPH 

A change of topic, you have learned, is shown 
to the eye by indention. Indention is also used 
in writing a conversation, to indicate a change of 
speaker. 

In writing a conversation, whenever the speaker changes, 
we should let the reader know it by beginning a new para- 
graph. 

When brief explanations or descriptions accom- 
pany the words of a speaker, these explanations or 
descriptions are included in the paragraph with 
the speaker's words. 

a. In the following conversation how many 
people took part ? Give the reason for each 
indention. 



WRITING CONVERSATION PARAGRAPHS 75 

Old Brooke picked him up. " Stand back, give 
him air," he says ; and then feeling his limbs, adds, 
" no bones broken. How do you feel, young man ? " 

" Hah-hah," gasps Tom, as his wind comes back, 
" pretty well, thank you — all right." 

" Who is he ? " asks Brooke. 

" Oh, it's Brown ; he's a new boy ; I know him," 
said East coming up. 

" Well, he is a plucky youngster, and will make a 
player," said Brooke. 

— Thomas Hughes 

b. Rewrite the following, beginning a new 
paragraph whenever there is a change of speakers. 

" Which of you two youths is the elder ? " asked 
Socrates of two friends. " That is a matter of dispute 
between us," answered one of the boys. " And which 
is the nobler ? Is that also a matter of dispute ? " 
asked Socrates. " Yes, certainly," they answered. 
" And another disputed point is, which is the fairer ? " 
he asked. " Yes," replied the boys laughing. " I do 
not ask which is the richer of the two," he said, " for 
you are friends, are you not ? " " Certainly," an- 
swered the boys. " And friends have all things in 
common, so that one of you can be no richer than 
the other, if you say truly that you are friends," 
ended Socrates. 

XX. WRITING CONVERSATION 
PARAGRAPHS 

The following paragraph is intended to em- 
phasize and illustrate the fact that success is 



76 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

never easy, that it depends upon patient persever- 
ance. 

A popular author recently said, at a New York 
dinner party, that success is never easy. He said 
that his hearers would not believe him if he told them 
how many magazine stories of his had been rejected 
before his first novel was pronounced a success. Suc- 
cess in writing, he said, was like success in skating. 
When one of his hearers asked him what skating had 
to do with writing, he replied that he had learned to 
write as he had learned to skate, by getting up every 
time he fell down. 

The paragraph contains no distracting sentences, 
it culminates in a good climax, and it gives the 
feeling of completeness. Yet it is not particularly 
interesting; it fails to impress the topic idea. 

See how much the paragraph can be improved, 
how much more vividly the incidents can be 
made to stand out, by breaking it up into con- 
versation paragraphs. Rewrite, beginning like 
this : 

" Success is never easy," said a popular author 
recently, at a New York dinner party. " If I were 
to tell you — " 

Note that now the topic sentence is stated at 
the very outset in four words. Complete the re- 
writing. How many conversation paragraphs will 
you make ? How many people speak ? 






WRITING A LETTER IN PARAGRAPHS 77 

XXL INVENTING CONVERSATIONS 

Select one of the following situations and 
imagine the conversation that might take place. 
How would the different characters speak ? 

Write the conversation, adding words descrip- 
tive of the manner of the speakers. 

1. Two boys who meet after school. 

2. Two girls talk about hats. 

3. A manager and an applicant for a position. 

4. Renting a house. 

5. A policeman and a chauifeur. 

6. A teacher and a pupil. 

7. A farmer and a young farm hand. 

8. A salesman and a customer. 

9. A mother and her son or daughter. 
10. Two girls who meet in a store. 



XXII. WRITING A LETTER IN PARAGRAPHS 

Write a letter to a friend telling of a journey 
that you have just made and of your safe arrival. 
Before writing, make an outline of the topics you 
will enlarge upon. Your outline might be some- 
what like the following : 

1. Introductory : some general characterization of 
the journey; reasons for writing about it. 

2. The start : time, place, mode of travel. 



78 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

3. An interesting or amusing experience : meeting 
friend ; something seen on the way. 

4. An accident: to vehicle; breaking something; 
losing something. 

5. The arrival : where, when, by whom met. 

6. What the one who met you said. (A conversa- 
tion paragraph.) 

7. Ending of letter. 

In place of each topic in this outline, you might 
write a topic sentence, as follows : 

1. Such an interesting journey! 

2. On Friday I left home to visit my friend, Will 
Reade. 

3. I had a most amusing experience on the way. 

4. We almost had a serious accident. 

5. I arrived at Beechwood on time and found Will 
waiting for me. 

6. He cried out, " You have come just in time." 



XXIII. COMPARING THE PARAGRAPH AND 
THE STANZA 

a. Divisions of prose are called paragraphs ; 
divisions of poetry are called stanzas. Stanzas, 
like paragraphs, break up the composition and 
make it seem easier to read ; sometimes the 
stanza, like the paragraph, presents a single 
topic. This is true of the stanzas in the following 
poem : 



THE PARAGRAPH AND STANZA 79 

Vitae Lampada * 

(The Torch of Life) 

1 

There's a breathless hush in the Close to-night — 

Ten to make and the match to win — 
A bumping pitch and a blinding light, 

An hour to play and the last man in. 
And it's not for the sake of a ribboned coat, 

Or the selfish hope of a season's fame, 
But his Captain's hand on his shoulder smote 

" Play up! play up! and play the game! " 

2 
The sand of the desert is sodden red, — 

Red with the wreck of a square that broke ; — 
The Gatling's jammed and the Colonel dead, 

And the regiment blind with dust and smoke. 
The river of death has brimmed his banks, 

And England's far, and Honor a name, 
But the voice of a schoolboy rallies the ranks: 

"Play up! play up! and play the game! " 

3 
This is the word that year by year, 

While in her place the school is .set, 
Every one of her sons must hear, 

And none that hears it dare forget. 
This they all with a joyful mind 

Bear through life like a torch in flame, 
And falling, fling to the host behind — 

"Play up! play up! and play the game!" 

— Sir Henry Newbolt 

* Copyright by John Lane Company. 



80 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Each stanza in this poem deals with a distinct 
topic. In the first stanza the thought is grouped 
about a cricket match played at school. Here 
the boy is taught the lesson, "Play up ! play up ! 
and play the game !" 

The second stanza tells of the experience of 
one of the boys when he becomes a soldier and 
wins a battle by applying the lesson, "Play up! 
play up 1 and play the game !" 

The third stanza is the climax; it presents 
"Play up ! play up ! and play the game !" as the 
great lesson of the school, the lesson that the 
pupils learn to apply in all situations through- 
out their lives. 

This poem is well worth memorizing. 

b. Stanzas do not always correspond with the 
topics of the poem. Very often, instead of mark- 
ing divisions of thought or changes of topic, 
stanzas merely indicate fixed groupings of lines 
and rhymes. 

In prose, indention shows a change of topic or of speaker. 
In poetry, indention shows a change of topic, or, more often, 
the grouping of rhymes. 

c. Select some poem that you like and explain 
the indention of the lines. Which stanzas mark 
divisions of thought ? 



CHAPTER FOUR 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS; NOMINATIVE CASE; 
NUMBER AND PERSON; AGREEMENT OF VERBS; 
GENDER; AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS. 

I. NOUNS COMMON AND PROPER 

All words are divided into eight classes, accord- 
ing to their use in sentences. These classes are 
called the Parts of Speech. They are Nouns, Pro- 
nouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs, Prepositions, 
Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

A word used as the name of something is called a Noun. 

a. Point out the names of persons or things in 
the following lines : 

Young Lochinvar is come out of the West, — 
Through all the wide Border his steed was the best, 
So faithful in love, and so dauntless in war, 
There never was knight like the young Lochinvar. 

Which noun in these lines is the name of a 
particular person ? Which noun is the name of 
any person of the same kind as Lochinvar ? Which 
nouns are names of places ? Which noun is the 
name of an animal ? Which noun is the name of 
a feeling ? What other noun can you find ? 

81 



82 



THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 



The name of a particular person or thing is called a Proper 
Noun. 

The name of any one of a class of persons or things is 
called a Common Noun. 

b. Mention a proper noun suggested to you by- 
each of the following common nouns : 

boy girl man day month country inventor 

c. Mention a noun that is common to all the 
persons or things in each of the following groups : 



Mary 
Emma 
Nellie 
Bertha 



Washington 
Lincoln 
McKinley 
Cleveland 

5 



3 
Carlo 
Bruno 
Tray 
Rover 
6 
Hudson 
Mississippi 
Rhine 
Danube 



Baltimore Alabama 

Denver Kansas 

Chicago Utah 

Boston Minnesota 

Proper nouns should be indicated to the eye by beginning 
them with capital letters; also many words derived from 
them : as, American, Americanism. 

The words father, mother, uncle, aunt, cousin, 
and others like them, are sometimes common 
nouns, and sometimes proper nouns. They are 
proper nouns and should begin with capitals when 
they . are the customary names, or part of the 
customary names, used in addressing particular 
persons. Thus : 



STUDYING SENTENCES FOR NOUNS 83 

My father is calling me. 

I am coming, Father. (Name used in address.) 

I have an uncle. 

I call him Uncle Henry. (Name used in address.) 

My dear cousin Jennie (if the writer is accustomed to 
call her "Jennie"). 

My dear Cousin Jennie (if the writer is accustomed to 
call her " Cousin Jennie "). 

II. STUDYING SENTENCES FOR NOUNS 

a. Make a list of the names of sounds in the 
following sentences : 

I hear sweet music. 
A loud crash startled me. 
Are you afraid of thunder ? 

The clash of sabers and the crack of pistols mingled 
with the booming of cannon and the roar of musketry. 

b. Make a list of the names of actions in the 
following sentences : 

I am fond of walking. 
She teaches us reading and writing. 
Laughter is good for the health. 
Swimming and diving are summer sports. 

c. Make a list of the names of feelings in the 
following sentences : 

He never knew fear. 

Joy comes, grief goes. 

He endured the agony bravely. 

The pain in my head is neuralgia. 



84 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

d. Make a list of the names of states or condi- 
tions in the following sentences : 

Life is earnest. 

Death cometh soon or late. 

Oh, sleep, it is a gentle thing. 

She was overcome with fatigue. 

She quickly recovered from her swoon. 

e. Make a list of the names of qualities in the 
following sentences : 

He had no courage. 

Wisdom is the principal thing. 

He had the strength of a lion. 

America is the home of freedom. 

He was honored for his obedience and truth. 

/. Make a list of all the nouns in the following 
sentences : 

Haste makes waste. 
Honesty is the best policy. 
Truth is stranger than fiction. 
Pride goeth before destruction. 
Sailing on this lake is dangerous. 
A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 
A little neglect may breed mischief. 

g. Make a list of the nouns in the following 
selection : 

For, lo! the winter is past, the rain is over and 
gone ; the flowers appear on the earth ; the time of 
the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the turtle 
is heard in our land ; the fig tree putteth forth her 



PRONOUNS 85 

green figs, and the vines with the tender grape give a 
good smell. 

III. PRONOUNS 

Read the following sentences : 

Ralph bought Ralph a top. The top Ralph gave 
to Ralph's sister Laura. Laura wanted the top. 

Point out the proper nouns in these sentences ; 
the common nouns. Do the sentences sound well ? 
Do they mention one boy, or more than one ? 

They might mean that Ralph Brown bought 
Ralph Smith a top and that Ralph Jones, taking 
the top, gave it to Ralph Miller's sister. 

Do the sentences mention one girl, or more 
than one ? Might they not refer to two Lauras, 
Laura Miller and Laura Robinson ? 

We may avoid both the obscurity and the un- 
pleasant repetition by substituting other words 
for some of the nouns : 

Ralph bought himself a top, which he afterward gave 
to his sister Laura, who wanted it. 

What three words are used to avoid the repeti- 
tion of the noun Ralph, and to make it clear that 
only one Ralph is meant ? What two words are 
used instead of the noun top ? What word is 
used instead of the noun Laura ? 

A word used instead of a noun is called a Pronoun. 



86 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

a. Rewrite the following sentences, using pro- 
nouns instead of nouns to avoid obscurity and 
repetition : 

Charles has lost Charles's pencil. 

Bessie has learned Bessie's lesson. 

The baby cried because the baby lost the baby's 
rattle. 

As Fred was going to the village, Fred met Fred's 
cousin. 

IV. PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

a. Fill the following blanks with pronouns you 
would use instead of the name of the person 
speaking. 

will call Mary. She often goes with . 

She is little sister. The sled she used yesterday 

is . She cried when fell off and hurt . 

b. Fill the following blanks with pronouns you 
would use instead of the names of two or more 

persons speaking. 

love Brownie, and he loves . He is 

dog. He has been for a year. chose him 

from among five puppies. 

A word that refers to the person speaking is said to be in 
the First Person. 

c. Fill the following blanks with pronouns you 
would use instead of the names of the person or 
persons spoken to: 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS 87 

I am glad have come early and brought 

sewing. I must work on mine, so I hoped you would 
bring . Did do all that ? 

A word that refers to the person spoken to is in the Second 
Person. 

d. Fill the following blanks with pronouns you 
would use instead of the name of (1) a boy spoken 
of; (2) a girl spoken of: 

is a classmate. I see every day. I do 

not know address. once corrected my 

exercise and I corrected . 

Fill the following blanks with pronouns used 
instead of the tree spoken of: 

The oak is famous for strength. often 

lives hundreds of years. The Druids worshiped . 

Fill the following blanks with pronouns used 
instead of the persons or things spoken of: 

Oak trees are famous for strength. often 

live hundreds of years. The Druids worshiped ■ 

Pine trees keep leaves, but oaks shed . 

A word that refers to the person or thing spoken of is in 
the Third Person. 

A pronoun that distinguishes between the person speak- 
ing, the person spoken to, and the person or thing spoken of, 
is called a Personal Pronoun. 

In referring to a boy you may say, "This book 
is his" (never "hisn"). In referring to a girl 



88 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

you may say, "This book is hers" (never "hern"). 
In referring to several persons you may say, 
"This house is theirs " (never " theirn "). " Hisn," 
"hern," "yourn," "meself," "hisself," and "their- 
selves" are never used by good speakers and 
writers. 

The pronoun " its " has no apostrophe. 

"It's" is a contraction for it is. 

e. What kind of word is "her" ? 

"Her" is a pronoun, because it is used instead 
of a noun or name. It is in the third person, 
because it refers to the person spoken of. 

Study in the same way each of the following 
words : 



I 


she 


they 


ourselves 


itself 


me 


her 


them 


yourself 


themselves 


you 


it 


mine 


yourselves 


thou 


he 


we 


ours 


himself 


ye 


him 


us 


yours 


herself 


thyself 



/. Fill the following blanks with pronouns and 
tell what they stand for : 

Barbara has lost needle. was sewing 

with . Perhaps has fallen under chair. 

Let all look under chairs. has thread 

in . Mother, will please give another ? 

Many mistakes in language consist in the wrong use of 
Personal Pronouns. 



CASE 89 

V. CASE 

Compare the two pronouns which denote the 
person speaking in the following sentences : 

I will call Mary. She often goes with me . 

"I" and "me" are both personal pronouns, 
referring to the person speaking. "I" is the sub- 
ject of a sentence, "me" is not. What is the sub- 
ject of the second sentence ? 

Compare the pronouns which denote the person 
spoken of in the following sentences : 

He often goes with me. I will call him. 

"He" and "him" both denote the person spoken 
of. "He" is the subject of a sentence, "him" is 
not. What is the subject of the second sentence ? 

The form of a noun or pronoun that shows its relation to 
other words is called Case. 

The form of a word used as the subject of a sentence is 
called the Nominative Case. 

"I" and "he" are the nominative case of the 
pronouns denoting a person speaking and a man 
spoken of. 

The forms "me" and "him" are, in English, 
usually called the Objective Case. Some persons 
prefer to call this case the Accusative, which is 
the name used in other languages.* 



90 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Learn the following very important list : 



Nominative Case: 


I 


we he 


she they 


who 


Objective Case: 


me 


us him 


her them 


whom 



VI. RIGHT AND WRONG IN LANGUAGE 

You are now nearly ready to understand why it 
is right to say, "No girls were late this morning," 
and wrong to say, "No girls was late this morn- 
ing" ; right to say, "He and / saw it," and wrong 
to say, "Him and me saw it." 

Right and wrong in language depend on the custom of 
speakers and writers of established reputation. 

There is no moral wrong in your saying, "No 
girls was late this morning" or "Him and me saw 
it" ; and if you do say it you will be understood. 
These forms of expression are common enough, 
and their meaning is instantly clear. But they 
are not used by well-informed and careful speakers. 
They produce in the mind of a well-informed 
hearer an impression of vulgarity like that which 
we get from seeing a person eat with his knife. 

In language, as in manners and fashions, the 
law is found in the custom of the best people ; 
and persons who wish to be classed as cultivated 
people must speak and write like cultivated 
people. If you* do not speak like well-informed 



PRONOUNS AS SUBJECTS 91 

and careful speakers, you run the risk of being 
classed as ignorant and vulgar. 

The next lessons will explain the rules which 
good writers and speakers follow when they say, 
"No girls were late this morning," and "He and 



VII. PRONOUNS AS SUBJECTS 

Good speakers and writers always use as subjects the 
Nominative forms /, we, he, she, they, or who. 

Good speakers and writers never use as subjects the 
Objective forms me, us, him, her, them, or whom. 

Who spoke? I spoke. 
Who spoke? I. 

Either of the above answers is correct. Every- 
body uses the pronoun / in the first answer ; but 
some people use the pronoun me instead of / 
when the predicate is omitted. That is wrong. 
The omission of the predicate does not change 
the form of the pronoun that should be used. 

a. Insert the proper form of pronoun in each 
blank, and tell why it is correct. What predicates 
are omitted ? 

I, Me 

Who will go? will go. 

Who will stay with me ? will. 

Who will tend the door? . 



92 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Blanche was right, and too. 

Brother is taller than . 

He isn't so old as . 

We, Us 

Our parents are wiser than are. 

They know more than . 

They are as human as . 

They can take a joke as well as . 

They are going to the show, and too. 

He, Him 

Reginald's sister is much younger than 

Therefore she is not so tall as . 

Neither can she run as fast as . 

She loves dearly, and loves her. 

and she are both studious. 

She, Her 

Barbara's brother is older than 

But he is not so observant as . 

Neither can he dance as well as . 

He loves dearly, and loves him. 

There are few girls more thoughtful than . 

They, Them 

The opponents of our boys were heavier than . 

Few boys could have done as well as . 

who strive for victory must be ready to take 

defeat. 

Did you ever see boys as bold as ? 

who come last must take what's left. 



PRONOUNS IN COMPOUND SUBJECTS 93 

VIII. PRONOUNS IN COMPOUND SUBJECTS 

The same case of pronoun should be used in a compound 
subject that is used in a single subject. 
Compare the following sentences : 

(1) John went fishing. 

(2) I went fishing. 

(3) John and I went fishing. 

(4) He caught four bass. 

(5) I caught three bass. 

(6) He and I caught seven bass. 

The nominative case of the pronoun / is 
correct in the compound subjects (3) and (6), 
because it is the same case that is used in the 
single subjects (2), (4), and (5). 

You probably would not think of saying, "Me 
went fishing" or "Him went fishing." Why, 
then, should you ever say, "Me and him went 
fishing"? 

Remember that the objective forms me, us, him, 
her, and them are never used by good speakers as 
subject substantives. They use instead the nomi- 
native forms /, we, he, she, and they. 

And if you are polite, you will always put the 
other person first and yourself last. You will 
always say, "John and I went fishing," not 
"I and John went fishing." 

a. Let us study the following sentence and see 



94 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

what pronouns can be rightly used in the blank 
places : 

and went home early. 

The subject of the sentence is " and " 



two connected pronouns forming a compound sub- 
ject. The predicate is "went home early." Only 
nominative forms of pronouns are used by good 
speakers as subjects, and a polite speaker puts 
himself last. Therefore we should say : 

He and I went home early. 
She and I went home early. 
He and she went home early. 
She and they went home early. 
He and they went home early. 
You and he went home early. 
You and she went home early. 

b. Study in the same way the following sentences 
and fill the blanks with as many correct forms 
of pronouns as you can think of, except " you " : 

i. and Frank sang a duet. 

2. and Bruno played together. 

3. Grace and met at dancing school. 

4. and my sister came to school together. 

5. Joe and went to the game. 

6. and walked to the field. 

7. Mother and are going to a party. 

8. Were and invited ? 

9. Can't you and help Mother ? 

10. What were you and talking about ? 



NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 95 

IX. SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS AND 
PRONOUNS 

What is the difference in meaning between the 
words book and books? "Book" denotes one 
object, "books" denotes two or more objects. 

The form of a word that denotes one object is called the 
Singular Number. 

The form of a word that denotes more than one object 
is called the Plural Number. 

a. What is the number of the noun foxes? 
Foxes is in the plural number, because it denotes 
more than one object. 

Study in the same way the number of each of 
the following words : 

bell hero feet knife woman 

children heroes foot geese women 

child tooth cities goose mice 

man teeth city ox mouse 

men lady apple oxen leaves 

b. Study in the same way the number of each 
pronoun in the list on page 88. 

c. Study in the same way the number of each 
subject substantive on pages 37-38. 

d. What is the plural of the following nouns and 



pronouns ? 








door pencil 
horse desk 


foot 
man 


I 
he 


him 

me 



96 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

X. FORMATION OF PLURAL NOUNS 

Most nouns form the plural by adding " s " to the singu- 
lar: as, book, books. 

The following variations from this regular rule 
are important : 

i. " -es." When the singular ends in a sound that 
does not unite with " s " alone, " es " is added, forming 
an additional syllable: as, fox, foxes. 

2. Plural of Nouns Ending in " y." If the " y " is 
preceded by a vowel, the plural is regular : as, valley, 
valleys. 

If the " y " is preceded by a consonant, " y " is 
changed to " i " and " es " is added to form the plural : 
as, lady, ladies ; city, cities. 

3. Plural of Nouns Ending in " f." The following 
:>uns ending with the soun 

" fe " to " v " and add " es 



beef 


elf 


knife 


life 


self 


shelf 


wife 


calf 


half 


leaf 


loaf 


sheaf 


thief 


wolf 



4. Plurals by Inward Change. Of such plurals the 
only examples are : foot, feet ; tooth, teeth ; goose, 
geese ; louse, lice ; man, men ; mouse, mice ; woman, 
women. 

5. Plural of Proper Nouns. Proper nouns, when 
made plural, are not changed internally: as, Henry, 
Henrys ; Nero, Neros. 

Proper names preceded by titles, as " Mr. Smith," 
" Miss Smith," " Colonel Smith," are treated in two 
different ways. We say " the Mr. Smiths," " the 
Mrs. Smiths," " the Miss Smiths," " the Colonel 



DICTATION EXERCISE 97 

Smiths " ; but we also say " the Messrs. Smith," " the 
Misses Smith," and " the Colonels Smith." 

6. Plural of Compound Nouns. Most compound 
nouns form the plural by adding the proper sign of the 
plural to the fundamental part of the word, i.e. to the 
part which is described by the rest of the phrase : 
as, oxcart, oxcarts ; court-martial, courts-martial ; 
aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp. When no single word is 
fundamental, as in " forget-me-not," the sign of the 
plural is put at the .end : as, forget-me-nots. Words 
like " spoonful," the compound nature of which has 
been almost forgotten, also take the sign of the plural 
at the end: as, spoonfuls, cupfuls. "Manservant," 
" womanservant," and " knighttemplar " often add 
the plural sign to both words : as, menservants. 

7. Letters, Figures, and Other Symbols are made 
plural by adding an apostrophe and " s " ('s) : as, 
" There are more e's than a's in this word " ; " Dot 
your i's and cross your t's." 



XL DICTATION EXERCISE: SINGULAR AND 
PLURAL NOUNS 

a. Write in one column the singular and in the 
opposite column the plural of the following words : 

Shoe, peach, rose, box, bush, grass. 
Ox, child, tooth, goose, mouse, woman. 
Chimney, fairy, baby, turkey, body, journey. 
Chief, dwarf, grief, gulf, half, hoof, knife, loaf, roof, 
shelf, thief, wolf. 
I, me. 



98 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

b. Write the plural of each of the following 
nouns : 



deer 


ax 


herring 


valley 


mass 


leaf 


solo 


stitch 


horse 


pupil 


compass 


lash 


alley 


buffalo 


goose-quill 


Mary 


dynamo 


chromo 


memento 


father-in-law 



XII. SINGULAR AND PLURAL VERBS 

You have learned that most nouns and pronouns 
have different forms for the singular and the 
plural number. 

Verbs, too, often show by their form whether 
they refer to one person or thing, or more than 
one. For example, compare the following sen- 
tences : 

My sheep is ready for shearing. 
My sheep are ready for shearing. 

These sentences are exactly alike except the 
verbs is and are. 

" Is " shows that the thought is about only one 
sheep. Therefore " is " is a verb in the singular 
number. 

"Are" shows that the thought is about more 
than one sheep. Therefore "are " is a verb in the 
plural number. 



CHANGES IN VERBS 99 

a. Study the verbs in the following sentences : 
Your deer was in the garden. 
Your deer were in the garden. 

"Was" is a verb in the singular number, be- 
cause it relates to one person or thing. 

"Were" is a verb in the plural number, because 
it relates to more than one person or thing. 

Study in the same way each verb in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. The trout in this pool has quick eyes. 

2. The trout in this pool have quick eyes. 

3. The farmer's swine roots in his orchard. 

4. The farmer's swine root in his orchard. 

5. The swine does it to get food. 

6. The swine do it to get food. 

XIII. CHANGES IN VERBS FOR NUMBER 
AND PERSON 

In most languages, including Old English, the 
form of the verb regularly changes with the 
number and person of the subject. 

In modern English the form of the verb " is " changes with 
the person and number of its subject. 

Learn the following forms of the verb " is " : 

Present Time 

Singular Plural 

1. / am well. 1. We are well. 

2. You are well. 2. You are well. 

3. He (she, it) is well. 3. They are well. 



ioo THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Past Time 

Singular Plural 

1. / was well. I. We were well. 

2. You were well. 2. Fow artr well. 

3. He (she, it, John) w<zj- 3. They (John and Jack) 

well. were well. 

All other verbs in modern English, when they refer to 
present time, add " s" to the verb when the subject is third 
person singular. 

Learn the following forms of the verb " make " : 

Present Time 

Singular Plural 

1. I make mistakes. 1. We make mistakes. 

2. You make mistakes. 2. You make mistakes. 

3. He maker mistakes. 3. They make mistakes. 

Past Time 

Singular Plural 

1. I made mistakes. 1. We made mistakes. 

2. You made mistakes. 2. You made mistakes. 

3. He made mistakes. 3. They made mistakes. 

The third person singular of have is has. 
The third person singular of do is does. 
Don't is a contraction of do not. The contrac- 
tion of does not is doesn't. 

XIV. AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH ITS 
SUBJECT 

In English, as in other languages, good speakers 
and writers observe the following rule : 



AGREEMENT OF VERB 101 

The verb must agree with its subject in number and 
person. 

A singular form of the verb is used when the subject is 
singular, or regarded as singular ; a plural form, when the 
subject is plural, or regarded as plural. 

Exception : The pronoun "you" always takes a 
plural verb, even when the meaning is singular : 
as, "Tom, you were late." 

The following sentences are correct : 

1. Half of the apples are gone. (The subject is 
plural in sense, though "half" is singular. The as- 
sertion is made of more than one apple.) 

2. This kind of trees has soft wood. (The subject 
substantive, " kind," is singular.) 

3. The- sound of many voices was heard. (The 
subject substantive is "sound," not "voices.") 

4. Neither of the two girls likes sewing. (The sub- 
ject substantive, "neither," is singular.) 

5. " Gulliver's Travels " was written by Swift. 
(The subject is singular in sense, though plural in 
form. The speaker is thinking of a single book.) 

6. The football team has daily practice. (The team 
is here thought of as a single body.) 

7. The football team have leather helmets. (The 
team is here thought of as a number of individuals.) 

8. Mental, moral, and physical education go hand 
in hand. (The speaker is thinking of three kinds 
of education.) 

9. The study of paragraphs is very important. 
(The subject substantive is " study ".) 

10. Every one of us has a book. (The subject 
substantive is "one.") 



102 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

n. Father, as well as mother, is going. (" Father " 
is the only subject; "as well as mother" is paren- 
thetical.) 

Sentences often begin with There is or There are, 
There was or There were. The word " there " in 
such sentences is merely introductory, and the 
verb should agree in number with the subject sub- 
stantive which follows it : as, 

There is water in the well. 

There are two sides to every question. 

a. Tell which form of the verb is right in each 
of the following sentences, and explain the reason : 

i. There (is, are) several girls in the party. 

2. There (are, is) truth in what you say. 

3. There (is, are) a crowd of people before the 
house. 

4. There (were, was) more desks here than in 
Room 3. 

5. There (was, were) a bushel of apples under the 
trees. 

6. There (is, are) a great variety of flowers in the 
garden. 

7. There (are, is) many kinds of people in the 
world. 

8. There (is, are) some foolish and some sensible 
boys in every school. 

9. There (is, are) a great quantity of wheat in the 
storehouse. 

10. There (come, comes) times when the bravest 
tremble. 



AGREEMENT OF VERB 103 

b. Make four interesting sentences of your own 
beginning with There is, There are, There was, and 
There were, in which " there " does not mean " in 
that place." 

c. Read aloud the following paragraphs, filling 
each blank with the proper word (is, are) : 

The winter burrows of the field mice usually 

five or six inches below the surface, but sometimes 

they simply hollowed out under a great stone. 

They remarkable for the numerous chambers and 

side passages of which they composed. In one 

of the largest rooms of this subterranean house 

placed their winter bed, formed of fine, dry grasses. 

Its shape and size about that of a football. It 

has a small cavity in the center, which entered 

through a hole in the side. The mice creep in as do 
Arctic travelers into their fur-bags. 

Here five or six young mice born, and stay 

until the coming of warm weather, by which time they 
grown, and go out to take care of themselves. 

In the deepest part of the burrow placed the 

store of provisions for parents and little ones : seeds, 
roots, small nuts, wheat, and rye. All these stores 

carried to the burrows, often from long distances, 

in their baggy cheeks, which the mice's pockets. 

— Ernest Ingersoll 

d. Read the following lines aloud, filling each, 
blank with the proper word {has, have) : 

A pin a head, but no hair ; 

A clock a face, but no mouth there ; 



104 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Needles eyes, but they cannot see ; 

A fly a trunk without lock or key ; 

A timepiece may lose, but cannot win ; 
A cornfield dimples without a chin ; 

A hill no leg, but a foot ; 

A wine-glass a stem, but not a root ; 

A watch hands, but no thumb or finger ; 

A boot a tongue, but is no singer ; 

Rivers run, though they no feet ; 

A saw teeth, but it does not eat ; 

Ash-trees keys, yet never a lock ; 

And baby crows, without being a cock. 

— Christina G. Rossetti 

e . Tell which form of the verb is correct in each 
of the following sentences, and explain the reason : 

i. The pilot, with two passengers, (were, was) in 
the airplane. 

2. John, as well as his brother, (was, were) in the 
Boys' Working Reserve. 

3. The ship, with all its crew, (were, was) sunk. 

4. No one except the members (are, is) admitted 
to the clubhouse. 

5. Everyone of us (is, are) invited. 

6. The story of his narrow escapes (make, makes) 
interesting reading. 

7. The house with all its contents (was, were) de- 
stroyed. 

8. Where (was, were) you last evening ? 

9. Five times five (are, is) twenty-five. 

10. Some of the workmen (have, has) already gone 
home. 

11. Cereal and cream (is, are) his usual breakfast. 



CONTRACTED FORMS 105 

12. Neither of the children (are, is) ready. 

13. "The Three Musketeers" (was, were) written 
by Dumas. 

14. Five dollars (are, is) too much for that racquet. 

15. The committee (are, is) ready to report. The 
committee (is, are) exhausted with (its, their) long 
session. 

XV. CONTRACTED FORMS 

Good speakers and writers often shorten the 
expressions printed in the first column into the 
contractions printed in the second column. 

I II 

I am not I'm not. 

You are not You're not or you aren't. 

It is not It's not or it isn't. 

They are not They're not or they aren't. 

Was not Wasn't. 

Were not Weren't. 

Has not Hasn't. 

Have not Haven't. 

Does not Doesn't. 

Do not Don't. 

When a contraction is written, an apostrophe 
is used to mark the place of an omitted letter. 

Ain't and hain't are not English words. They 
are never used by good speakers. 

a. Which form of the verb is right in the fol- 
lowing sentence ? 

The cherries (isn't, aren't) ripe yet. 



106 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

The subject of the verb is "cherries," which is in 
the plural number. Therefore the verb should be 
plural, and the sentence should be, "The cherries 
aren't ripe yet." 

Study in the same way each of the following 
sentences, and fill each blank with the proper 
contraction. If two contractions are possible, use 
first one, then the other. 

I'm not, Aren't, Isn't 

(i) He here. They here. She here. 

The boys here. It here. 

(2) He writing any more. It any use. 

Those papers of any use. they yours? No, 

they mine. 

(3) Those berries good to eat. That kind of 

wood good to burn. I going to stop here. 

(4) No, you right in your guess. I tired. 

I'm worried because mother well. 

(5) That desk mine. That story true. 

The answer in this book. that your book ? 

No, it mine. 

Wasn't, Weren't 

(6) He there. They there. She 

there. The girls there. It there. You 

there. We there. 

(7) It of any use. The papers of any 

use. this one yours ? No, it mine. 

(8) The wood good to burn. The fruit 

good to eat. 



CONTRACTED FORMS 107 

(9) You right in your guess. I tired. I 

was worried because father well. 

(10) The mistake mine. That page in 

my book. 

Hasn't, Haven't 

(1 1) the wild geese gone south ? 

No, the wild geese gone south yet. 

How do you know they ? 

I seen any of them flying. My father 

seen any either. 

you even heard them ? 

No, I either seen or heard them. 

your father heard them at night? 

No, he . But mother told me about them, and 

read me James Russell Lowell's vivid stanza describing 

them. you heard it ? No, I heard it. 

Mary heard it, either. What is the stanza? 

It is something like this: 

Way overhead, as sweet and low 

As distant bells that ring for meeting, 

The wedged wild geese their bugles blow, 
Further and further south retreating. 

(12) Lazy come yet? 

No, he come. He's always the last. 

He probably heard the lines an Illinois teacher 

made up about him. 

I'm sure he . We heard them either. 

What are they? 

" He comes to school at nine, just missing being late. 

He any pencil and he any slate. 

He any ruler and he any book, 



108 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

While at the other boys and girls he likes to sit and 
look." 

Doesn't, Don't 

(13) Why Harry write ? I know why he 

write. Perhaps he have time. 

(14) Why those apple trees bear ? The gar- 
dener know why they . your father 

know ? No, he . it worry him ? No, I'm 

glad to say it . 

(15) Martha look happy to-night. she 

like dancing ? Perhaps she ; I know for 

sure. It seem natural. 

(16) It seem possible that winter is here. 

Grandmother like cold weather. She sits by the 

fire all day, but it seem to keep her warm. 

She says the logs seem to burn as well as they 

used to. 

(17) Why Tom and Dick come to our con- 
certs ? And why George come ? Tom says he 

like music. I know why Dick come. 

I'm sure I care if he . He need to 

come if he want to. We need his presence. 

XVI. AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH COM- 
POUND SUBJECT 

A compound subject denoting more than one person or 
thing requires a plural verb. 

a. Which form of the verb is right in the follow- 
ing sentence ? 

Tom and his sister {was, were) there. 



AGREEMENT OF VERB 109 

The subject is "Tom and his sister," a compound 
subject denoting more than one person. There- 
fore the verb should be plural, to agree with its 
subject. The sentence should be, "Tom and his 
sister were there." 

Study in the same way each of the following 
sentences, so as to tell which form of the verb is 
right : 

1. Harold and Arthur (are, is) twin brothers. 

2. The apple and the pear (belongs, belong) to the 
rose family. 

3. Lida, Ruth, and Barbara (was, were) in the same 
automobile. 

4. Fluency and eloquence (are, is) two different 
things. 

5. The lion and the unicorn 

(Was, were) fighting for the crown. 

b. Singular subjects joined by or or nor take 
a singular verb, because they are thought of sepa- 
rately, not together: as, "Neither Tom nor his 
sister was there." When subjects connected by 
or or nor are of different numbers, the verb usually 
agrees with the nearest: as, "One or two were 
there." 

Tell which form of the verb is right in each of 
the following sentences, and explain the reason : 

1. (Is, are) Charlie or Will going? 

2. Neither Father nor Mother (is, are) home. 



no THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

3. The noise means that either the circus or the sol- 
diers (has, have) come. 

4. Neither of her brothers (was, were) present. 

5. Either my watch or that clock (are, is) wrong. 

XVII. GENDER 

The word lion is the name of a male animal ; 
the name of the female is lioness. The distinction 
between the objects themselves is called sex; the 
distinction between their names is called gender. 

Gender is the property of a noun or a pronoun that dis- 
tinguishes sex. 
A word denoting a male object is of the masculine gender. 

Examples: man, uncle, boy, brother, duke, hero, 
king, master, prince, tiger, he, him. 

A word denoting a female object is of the feminine gen- 
der. 

Examples : woman, aunt, girl, sister, duchess, heroine, 
queen, mistress, princess, tigress, she, her. 

A word denoting an object that has no sex is in the neuter 
gender. 

The word "neuter" means "neither." 

Examples : apple, book, desk, hat, river, stone, table, 
it, which. 

Many nouns and some pronouns are either 
masculine or feminine : as, cousin, child, friend, 



AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN IN GENDER in 

laborer, parent, pupil, teacher, I, me, we, us, they, 
them, who, whom. 

a. Write the masculine nouns in the following 
selection in one column, the feminine in another 
column, and the neuter in a third column : 

Dr. Primrose and the Face Wash 

As we expected our landlord the next day, my wife 
went to make the venison pasty. Moses sat reading, 
while I taught the little ones. My daughters seemed 
equally busy with the rest ; and I observed them for a 
good while cooking something over the fire. I at first 
supposed they were assisting their mother, but little 
Dick informed me, in a whisper, that they were making 
a wash for the face. Washes of all kinds I had a 
natural antipathy to, for I knew that, instead of mend- 
ing the complexion, they spoil it. I therefore ap- 
proached my chair by sly degrees to the fire, and grasp- 
ing the poker, as if it wanted mending, seemingly by 
accident overturned the whole composition, and it was 
too late to begin another. 

— Goldsmith : The Vicar of Wakefield 

XVIII. AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN IN 
GENDER 

The word or group of words for which a pronoun stands 
is N called its antecedent. 
A pronoun must be of the same gender as its antecedent. 

a. Read the following selection and notice the 
italicized words : 



ii2 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

King Midas took a nice little trout on his plate, and, 
by way of experiment, touched its tail with his finger. 
To his horror, it was immediately transmuted from 
an admirably fried brook trout into a goldfish, though 
not one of those goldfishes which people often keep 
in glass globes, as ornaments for the parlor. No ; 
but it was really a metallic fish and it looked as if it 
had been very cunningly made by the nicest goldsmith 
in the world. Its little bones were now golden wires ; 
its fins and tail were thin plates of gold ; and there 
were the marks of the fork in it, and all the delicate, 
frothy appearance of a nicely fried fish, exactly imi- 
tated in metal. 

"Well, this is a quandary!" thought he, leaning 
back in his chair, and looking quite enviously at little 
Marygold, who was now eating her bread and milk 
with great satisfaction. 

And truly, did you ever hear of such a pitiable case 
in all your lives ? Here was literally the richest break- 
fast that could be set before a king, and its very rich- 
ness made it absolutely good for nothing. The poorest 
laborer, sitting down to his crust of bread and cup of 
water, was far better off than King Midas, whose deli- 
cate food was really worth its weight in gold. 

— Hawthorne: A Wonder-Book. 

In this selection the masculine noun "King 
Midas" is referred to by "he" and "his." The 
feminine noun "Marygold" is referred to by 
"her." Neuter nouns, like "breakfast" or 
"food," are referred to by "it" or "its." 

"Trout," which is either masculine or feminine, 



AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN IN GENDER 113 

is here referred to by "it" or "its," because the 
object named is thought of as a mere thing with- 
out any reference to sex. 

"Laborer," which denotes either a male or a 
female person, is referred to by " his." This is 
customary when there is no desire to emphasize 
distinctions of sex. If the author had thought 
distinctions of sex were here important, he would 
have said, "The laborer sitting down to his or 
her crust of bread." 

When a pronoun stands for a noun that may apply to both 
men and women, it is customary to use a masculine pronoun 
if there is no desire to emphasize distinctions of sex. 

Example: Every person has his faults. 

In speaking of animals, when there is no desire to note 
distinctions of sex, the general tendency is to use a mas- 
culine pronoun if the animal is large or strong, a neuter 
pronoun if the animal is small, a feminine pronoun if we think 
of the animal as possessing feminine qualities such as gentle- 
ness, beauty, timidity. 

Examples: The tiger steals silently on his prey. 
A trout swims with its tail. 
The hare ran for her life. 
In speaking of a small child, we often use the pronoun 
it when sex is not considered. 

Example: The child reached out its little hands. 
a. Insert an appropriate pronoun in each blank 
in the following sentences: 



1 1 4 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

i. Can a leopard change spots ? 

2. Close in covert cowered the doe. 

3. The lamb bleated for mother. 

4. The child was unconscious of danger. 

5. The bear rubbed nose against the bars. 

6. The goose had wandered from companions. 

7. The cat knew the dogs to be mortal ene- 
mies. 

8. The duck was pluming feathers after 

swim. 

9. Even a fool, when holdeth peace, is 

counted wise. 

10. If any person in the class needs a pencil, I will 
lend mine. 

XIX. GENDER IN PERSONIFICATION 

Examine the following sentence : 

Spring hangs her infant blossoms on the trees. 

You observe that the writer refers to spring, 
which has neither life nor sex, by a feminine pro- 
noun. The explanation is that he imagined spring 
as a person with life, and spoke accordingly. 
When we thus speak of an object without life as 
if it were a person, we are said to Personify it. 

Gender in personification is determined by the 
same principle as in speaking of animals without 
regard to sex : things remarkable for size, power, 
strength, or other manly qualities are referred 
to as masculine ; things remarkable for beauty, 



GENDER IN PERSONIFICATION 115 

gentleness, grace, or other womanly qualities 
are referred to as feminine. 

Here is another example of personification : 

The sun now rose upon the right ; 
Out of the sea came he. 

a. Write five interesting sentences in which the 
following things are personified as masculine : 

time war winter electricity the ocean 

b. Write five interesting sentences in which the 
following things are personified as feminine : 

a ship the earth night liberty peace 

c. Fill each blank with a pronoun, and give 
the reason for its gender : 

1. Every author has faults. 

2. A writer should be careful with pronouns. 

3. Venice sat in state, throned on hundred 

isles. 

4. A person who is rude in table manners 

will be disliked. 

5. Winter had bound the lakes and rivers fast in 
icy grasp. 

6. The mocking-bird shook from little throat 

floods of delirious music. 

7. The Olympic is a huge steamer. is longer 

than the Great Eastern. 

8. A calf can distinguish mother's lowing 

from that of a hundred other cows. 



n6 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

9. When a cat comes near a light, the pupils of 

eyes contract and elongate. 

10. The polar bear suffers so much from heat that 

cannot live long in warm climates ; therefore 

is seldom seen in menageries. 

XX. AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN IN 
NUMBER 

Difficulties in the use of the number forms of 
pronouns arise mainly in connection with (1) nouns 
naming a collection of objects, called collective nouns 
and (2) such words as "anybody," "everybody," 
"each," "either," "neither," and "nobody." 

A collective noun is referred to by a singular pronoun 
when the collection of objects is thought of as a single thing ; 
by a plural pronoun when the speaker is thinking of the 
separate objects in the collection. 

For instance, we refer to a committee as "it" 
when we think of it as a whole ; when we think of 
the individuals who compose it, we use the pro- 
noun "they." Similarly we say, "The jury has 
given its verdict," thinking of it as a single body ; 
"The jury have gone to their homes," thinking of 
the members. 

Anybody, everybody, each, either, neither, and nobody 
are in the singular number ; and in literary English they are 
referred to by singular pronouns, and take singular verbs. 

Example : If anybody calls, ask him to wait. 



AGREEMENT OF PRONOUN IN NUMBER 117 

If the writer considered reference to sex worth 
while, he would say "ask him or her to wait." 
Ordinarily, however, he would use "him" only, 
taking for granted the application to women. 

a. Fill the blanks with the proper pronouns : 

1. Each must take turn. 

2. Any one can do this if (try, tries). 

3. (Has, have) everyone finished work? 

4. Every girl can do this if (try, tries). 

5. Either Mary or Lizzie will lend you pencil. 

6. The choir rendered most popular selection. 

7. The audience (was, were) very enthusiastic 
in response. 

8. Each pupil (was, were) requested to name 

favorite color. 

9. Probably everybody (is, are) eloquent at least 
once in life. 

10. Man after man passed, carrying — ■ — - golf clubs 
with . . 

11. Each of the girls married well, at least in 

own opinion. 

12. Each of the children married well, at least in 
own opinion. 

13. The team (was, were) on own field and 

felt that could not be defeated. 

14. Whoever (loves, love) — — school should do 
best to keep its tone high. 

15. Many a brave man met death in an obscure 

moment of the war with Spain. 

16. Whoso keepeth mouth and tongue, 

keepeth soul from troubles. 



u8 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

b. Read the following sentence : 

John told Fred that he knew that he had lost his 
book. 

Just what does the above sentence mean ? Who 
knew something ? Who had lost a book ? Whose 
book was lost ? We make the meaning clear if 
we use a direct quotation : 

John said, "Fred, you know that you lost my book." 

Change the pronouns in this direct quotation 
so as to show five other meanings. 

c. Make the following sentences clear by using 
direct quotations or by repeating nouns where 
necessary. Correct each faulty sentence in as 
many clear and sensible ways as you can ; there 
may be many excellent ways of expressing the 
same thought : 

(i) She prepared a fowl for dinner and had it ready 
in good time. 

(2) The sailor told his mate that his knife was in 
his berth on his ship. 

(3) The father told his son that he would spend all 
his money to recover his health. 

(4) She removed all the furniture from the sitting 
room and swept it. 

(5) John rescued Tom from the icy river. When 
he got him to the bank, his clothing was stiff with ice 
and he was so cold and so exhausted that he could 
scarcely stand. 



CHAPTER FIVE 

LETTER WRITING 

A business letter differs in form from a formal 
social note, and both of these differ from a friendly 
letter. The formal parts of each kind of letter 
have been established by custom ; these must be 
thoroughly learned and always used. 

I. THE FORM OF BUSINESS LETTERS 

Letters about business are usually written to 
strangers who are busy. Therefore the letter 
must tell who the writer is, where he lives, when 
he writes, to whom he writes, and what the busi- 
ness is ; and it must do this clearly and quickly. 
This is best done by using an unvarying form, 
so that the different bits of needed information 
are always in the same place, where the reader 
can find them at a single glance. 

The formal parts of a business letter are : 

(i) The heading: where written, and when. 

(2) The address : to whom written, and where living. 

(3) The salutation: a courteous greeting. 

(4) The body of the letter: the message. 

119 



izo THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(5) The complimentary close : a courteous leave taking. 

(6) The signature : the name of the writer. 

(7) The superscription : the address on the envelope. 

I. The heading of a business letter should 
contain the writer's address and the date. The 
address shows the receiver of the letter where to 
send his reply; the date, telling when the letter 
was written, is always important. 

The heading should be written at the right of 
the center of the page. It may occupy two or 
three lines, as in the following examples : 

{a) 264 Jefferson Ave., 

Harrison, N. J., 
April 3, 1917. 

(b) R.F.D. No. 3, Whitewing, III., 

Sept. 4, 191 7. 

(c) Box 113, Holcome, Mass., 

May 4, 1917. 

(d) Orient Building, 

FOXVILLE, Va., 

Oct. 3, 1917. 

In the above headings, commas are used to 
separate the different parts, and a period is used 
at the end. In (a) a comma is used after Ave. to 
separate the street address from the name of the 
city; a comma is used after Harrison to separate 
the name of the city from the name of the state ; 



THE FORM OF BUSINESS LETTERS 121 

a comma is used after N. J. to separate the ad- 
dress from the date; and a comma is used after 
April 3 to separate the month and day from the 
year. 

Where and why are commas used in headings 
(b), (c), and (d) ? What mark is used after each 
complete heading ? 

Give reasons for all the other marks of punctua- 
tion used in the headings. 

2. The address consists of the name of the 
person to whom the letter is written, and the place 
to which it is to be sent. It usually occupies 
two or three lines. The first line begins at the 
margin, that is, about one half inch from the 
left-hand edge of the sheet; the second line is 
usually indented, and the third, when there is a 
third, is indented still more, as in the following 
examples. 

(a) Mr. James Whitney, 

156 E. Main St., 
Leatown, Minn. 

(b) Messrs. Green & Long, 

16 Broadway, 

New York City. 

(c) D. R. Jones & Co., 

14 State St., Chicago, III. 

(d) To the Captain of the Baseball Team, 

Grant School, Branson, R. I. 



122 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

In the address, commas are used to separate the 
different parts, and a period is placed at the close. 

When and why are commas used in each of- the 
above addresses ? 

What other marks of punctuation are used ? 
Why? 

3. The salutation, which should begin at the 
margin, usually consists of one of the following 
terms : 

Dear Sir : Gentlemen : Dear Sirs : 

Dear Madam : Ladies : 

The salutation may be followed by a colon, a 
colon and a dash, a comma, or a comma and a dash. 

4. The body of the letter may begin on the 
same line as the salutation, immediately to the 
right of it, or it may begin on the next line, in- 
dented like any other paragraph. 

5. The body of the letter is followed by the 
complimentary close and the signature of the 
writer. The usual forms of complimentary close 
and signature in a business letter are : 

(a) Yours truly, (b) Truly yours, 

John White J. F. Langley 

(c) Very truly yours, (d) Yours very truly, 

G. F. Holmes Henry Longworth 

(<?) Yours respectfully, 

Charles Wright 



THE ADDRESS ON THE ENVELOPE 123 

A comma is used to separate the complimentary- 
close from the signature. Only the first word in 
the complimentary close begins with a capital. 

II. THE ADDRESS ON THE ENVELOPE 

a. The address on the envelope should be 
plainly written and complete. The address of the 
sender, sometimes also the name, with a request to 
"return in three (or five) days," is often printed 
or written in the upper left hand corner of the 
envelope. Why ? 

b. The name of the person to whom the letter 
is to be sent should occupy the middle of the 
envelope, and each succeeding line of the address 
should begin a little to the right of the one above. 



(a) 



Mr. J. N. Longfellow, 
16 Raymond St., 
Newark, N. J. 



i2 4 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(b) 



Return in three days to 
2i Spruce St., Flint, Mich. 






* 

Mr. J. M. Brown, 




15 Washington St., 




Charleston, 




Va. 



III. STUDYING AND WRITING BUSINESS 
LETTERS 

Below are some common forms of business 
letters. Read them, and explain each mark of 
punctuation. 

(a) 

16 Kimball Terrace, 

Newtonville, Mass., 

May 6, 1917. 
Messrs. S. S. Pierce & Co., 
Tremont St., 
Boston, Mass. 
Gentlemen : Please send the following articles — 

1 bbl. Gold Medal flour 
10 lb. Granulated sugar 

2 lb. Print butter 

1 box Baker's cocoa 



WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS 125 

1 lb. Lipton's Ceylon tea 
1 box Educator crackers 
Ship these goods by Thursday's delivery, and charge 
them to my account. 

Yours truly, 

W. R. Jones 

Write a letter to a merchant ordering at least 
five articles. Give heed to the letter form, the 
punctuation, and the following directions : 

Make a simple list of articles wanted. Begin 
the name of each article with a capital letter. 
Use figures to indicate the desired amount. 

Give shipping directions — mail, parcel post, 
express, or freight, unless the merchant makes 
his own deliveries as in the above order. 

State how payment is to be made. If payment 
is inclosed, state the amount. 

w 

R.F.D. No. 3, Whitewing, III., 

Sept. 8, 1917. 
The Outlook Co., 

381 Fourth Ave., New York, 
Dear Sirs: 

Inclosed you will find a money order for four dollars 
($4.00) for one year's subscription to the Outlook. 

Please send it to me at the above address, beginning 
with the issue of Sept. 5, 1917. 

Truly yours, 

Wilton Watson 



126 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

How did the writer try to make sure that the 
magazine would be sent to the right address ? 
That his subscription would begin with the 
number he wanted ? 

Write a letter ordering a newspaper or magazine 
sent to your address. 

to 

17 Lawrence St., 
Monona, III., 
May 30, 1917. 
Mr. J. R. Rodney, 

41 State St., Chicago, III. 
Dear Sir: I wish to apply for the position of office 
boy, advertised in to-day's Herald. 

I am fifteen years old, and shall graduate from the 
Lincoln Grammar School next month. I can work for 
the months of July and August. 

Last summer vacation I was office boy for Dr. D. L. 
Daniels, 14 Lowell St., Monona. He has given me 
permission to use his name as reference. 

If you employ me, you will find that I am willing and 
not afraid of hard work. 

Respectfully yours, 
George Cable 

A letter of application should contain a brief 
introduction telling why the writer has applied ; 
a statement of his age, education, experience or 
fitness for the work ; references or testimonials ; 
and an expression of the writer's purpose in 
doing the work. 



WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS 127 

Answer the following advertisement. 

Wanted. — A bright energetic school boy about 
fifteen years old, to work in a garage during July and 
August. Wages, $5 a week. Reference required. 
John L. Raymond, 16 Peare St., Boston, Mass. 

tf) 
Grant Grammar School, 

Branson, R. I., 
March 1, 1917. 
To the Captain of the Baseball Team, 

Lincoln School, Whitby, R. I. 
Dear Sir: I should like to arrange a game between the 
Grant Grammar School nine and your team. I have 
the following open dates : Saturday, April 21 ; Satur- 
day, May 19 ; and Wednesday, May 30. 

Will you play us on one of these dates ? I will hold 
them all until March 8, hoping to hear favorably from 
you. Details of the game can be arranged later. 
Very truly, 

Henry T. Jameson, 
Manager of the Grant 
Grammar School Nine 

As the Captain above addressed, reply to Henry 
Jameson's letter. If you decline his invitation, 
give your reasons. 

w 

Write a letter in answer to one of the follow- 
ing advertisements : 

(1) For Sale. — A canoe, practically new ; is being 
sold cheap because the owner is leaving town. Address 
B. T. Brown, 16 Lake St. 



128 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

In answering this advertisement, make an ap- 
pointment to see the canoe at a certain time or 
ask any questions regarding the price, size, ma- 
terial, etc. 

(2) Wanted. — Good second-hand bicycle ; state 
make and price. Address R. M. Gray, Green Pond, Ind. 

In answering this advertisement, offer a bicycle 
for sale. Consider that many others will also be 
offering bicycles for sale ; hence you must attract 
the attention of the advertiser to yours. 

(3) Wanted. — Correspondence with a boy in the 
United States who wishes to exchange stamps. Fred 
Alwood, 16 Green Court, Manchester, England. 

IV. THE FORM OF FRIENDLY LETTERS 

The formal parts of friendly letters, and the 
punctuation of these parts, are the same as the 
formal parts of business letters, with the following 
exceptions : 

(1) In friendly letters the address is usually 
omitted, and the salutation less formal. Common 
salutations to friends are : 

(1) Dear Tom, — 

(2) Dear Mr. White: 

(3) My dear Miss Blank: 

(4) Dear Cousin, 



FORMAL NOTES 129 

Dear Tom is less formal than My dear Miss 
Blank, and is followed by a comma and a dash; 
sometimes the dash is omitted, as in (4). The 
more formal salutations in (2) and (3) are followed 
by a colon. 

(2) The complimentary close of a friendly letter 
may be any one of the forms used in a business 
letter (see p. 122) ; one of the following, however, 
is more intimate : 

(1) Sincerely, 

(2) Yours sincerely, 

(3) Cordially yours, 

(3) The signature of a letter to a very intimate 
friend may consist of the first name only of the 
writer. If the salutation is Dear Tom, the signa- 
ture may be John, unless more is needed to make 
sure who the writer is. 

(4) Write a real letter to one of your friends, a 
letter that you may send. Make it interesting. 

This exercise is to be repeated as often as your 
teacher may direct. 

V. FORMAL NOTES 

Below are the three most common forms of 
formal notes. How does the form of each differ 
from that of a business letter ? 



i 3 o THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(i) 

Mrs. J. R. Holman requests the pleasure of Miss 
Florence Rome's presence at a Valentine party to be 
given next Tuesday evening from seven to ten. 

444 Summer Avenue, 
Wednesday, February the eighth. 

(2) 

Miss Florence Rome accepts with pleasure Mrs. 
Holman's kind invitation for next Tuesday evening. 

II Crescent Street, 
Friday, February the tenth. 

(3) 

Miss Florence Rome regrets that she cannot accept 
Mrs. Holman's kind invitation for next Tuesday 
evening on account of a previous engagement. 

II Crescent Street, 
Friday, February the tenth. 

The address of the writer and the date of writing 
are placed at the head of a business letter. Where 
are they placed in formal notes ? Observe, how- 
ever, that the same rules of punctuation apply to 
both : the parts are separated by commas ; the 
whole is followed by a period. 

a. Write a formal invitation to one of your 
classmates. 

b. Reply to a formal invitation written by one 
of your classmates. 



CHAPTER SIX 

MODIFIERS; ADJECTIVES; ADVERBS 

I. APPOSITION 

Compare the following sentences : 

(i) Thomas is ill. 

(2) Thomas, the coachman, is ill. 

In the second sentence, the noun " coachman " is 
set next to the noun "Thomas" by way of ex- 
planation, and denotes the same person or thing. 

A noun set next to another noun by way of explanation, 
and denoting the same person or thing, is said to be in Ap- 
position. 

If a noun in apposition is accompanied by other words, it 
is usually set off by commas, because it is more or less 
parenthetical. 

Newton, the great mathematician, was very honest. 

a. In the following sentences point out the 
nouns in apposition. Give the reason for each 
punctuation mark : 

1. Iago, the great boaster, made a bow for Hiawatha. 

2. This was the wedding morn of Priscilla, the 
Puritan maiden. 

3. We, the people of the United States, do ordain 
and establish this Constitution. 

131 



132 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

4. Then out spoke brave Horatius, 
The Captain of the Gate. 

5. In the Land of the Dacotahs 
Lives the Arrow-maker's daughter, 
Minnehaha, Laughing Water, 
Handsomest of all the women. 



II. WHAT A MODIFIER IS 

Read the following paragraph from " The Trage- 
dies of the Nests " : 

The song birds nearly all build low. Their cradle 
is not upon the tree top. It is only birds of prey that 
fear danger from below more than from above, and 
that seek the higher branches for their nests. A line 
five feet from the ground would run above more than 
half the nests, and one ten feet would bound more than 
three fourths of them. 

— John Burroughs 

Have you read all of Mr. Burroughs' essay on 
"The Tragedies of the Nests " ? It is very interest- 
ing and beautiful. 

Mr. Burroughs gives the topic of this paragraph 
in the sentence, 

The song birds nearly all build low. 

The subject substantive of this sentence is 
the noun "birds," and the verb is "build." But 
the bare sentence, 

Birds build, 



WHAT A MODIFIER IS 133 

is uninteresting. Mr. Burroughs puts the word 
"the" before "birds" to limit the meaning to 
particular birds, and he uses the word "low" 
with "build" to tell how they build. "The" 
limits or modifies the noun "birds," and "low" 
limits or modifies the verb "build" by telling the 
manner of building. 

But the modified sentence, 

The birds build low, 

is not true. All birds do not build low ; therefore, 
Mr. Burroughs further limited or modified "birds" 
by using "song" to tell the kind of bird he had in 
mind, and the word "all" to tell how many. Re- 
membering, however, that there are some excep- 
tions, he made his sentence accurate by adding 
"nearly" to modify the meaning of "all." It will 
be interesting to compare the following sentences : 

Birds build. 

Birds build low. 

The song birds build low. 

The song birds all build low. 

The song birds nearly all build low. 

In the sentence, 

The song birds nearly all build low, 
"the," "song," and "all" limit or modify the 
noun "birds." "Low" limits or modifies the 



134 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

verb "build." "Nearly" limits or modifies the 
modifying word "all." 
In the sentence, 

Birds of prey build in high places, 

"birds" is modified, not by a single word, but by 
the two words "of prey" taken together; neither 
of them can be omitted. The verb "build" is 
modified by the group of words, "in high places," 
taken together. 

A word, or a group of words, used to limit or modify the 
meaning of another word is called a Modifier. 

III. STUDYING SENTENCES FOR MODIFIERS 

Compare these two sentences : 

(i) Sound leaks. 

(2) The meadow-lark's clear sound 

Leaks upward slowly from the ground. 

— Henry van Dyke 

Which sentence do you like the better ? Let us 
see what makes it so much more interesting and 
beautiful than the first one. 

The subject substantive is the noun "sound," 
and the verb is "leaks," just as in the first 
sentence. But in the more interesting sentence, 
"sound" is modified by "the" and "meadow- 
lark's," and "clear." "Leaks" is modified by 



SENTENCES FOR MODIFIERS 135 

"upward" and "slowly" and the group of words, 
"from the ground," taken together. 

All the words in the more interesting sentence, 
except the subject noun and the verb, are 
modifiers. This might be shown to the eye by 
writing the sentence thus : 

Modifiers Noun Verb Modifiers 

The J I upward 

meadow-lark's \ sound leaks I slowly 

clear I I from the ground. 

a. Study in the same way the following sen- 
tences. Point out first the subject substantive 
and the verb. Read these together. Next tell 
all the modifiers of the subject substantive ; then, 
of the verb. They may be written in columns as 
above : 

(1) Into the street the Piper stept. 

(2) Out came the children running. 

(3) Into the midnight we galloped abreast. 

(4) At Boom, a great yellow star came out. 

(5) At Aershot, up leaped of a sudden the sun. 

(6) At length into Aix Roland galloped and stood. 

(7) The chiefs eye flashed. 

(8) His plans soared up again like fire. 

(9) Under a spreading chestnut tree 
The village smithy stands. 

(10) The beautiful stars, which are distant suns, 
twinkle brightly on frosty nights. 



136 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

IV. USING MODIFIERS 

a. Which sentences in the following groups 
appeal strongly to your feelings ? 

(i) A woman fell. 

(2) A frail, little, old woman, dressed in shabby 
black, fell fainting at the crossing. 

(3) A tall, stout woman, loaded with bundles of 
every size and shape, fell as she was stepping from a 
street car. 

(4) A dainty, graceful young woman fell into the 
water as she was stepping from a canoe. 

All the above sentences have the same subject 
substantive, woman, and the same verb, fell. The 
other words or groups of words are modifiers. 

(5) A boy called aloud. 

(6) A little crippled boy playing in the street called 
aloud as a swift automobile bore down upon him. 

(7) A lusty, ragged boy selling papers called aloud 
at the corner. 

All the sentences (5), (6), and (7) have the same 
subject substantive, boy, and the same verb, called. 
All the other words or groups of words in these 
sentences are modifiers ; they modify either the 
subject substantive or the verb. 

b. What modifiers might you use in the 
sentence, 

Boys and girls ran, 



USING MODIFIERS 137 

to make it more interesting and vivid ? Write 
your sentence, making it as interesting and vivid 
as you can. 

c. Compare your sentence with this sentence 
from " The Pied Piper," which Robert Browning 
made by adding modifiers to " Boys and girls ran" : 

All the little boys and girls, 

With rosy cheeks and flaxen curls, 

And sparkling eyes and teeth like pearls, 

Tripping and skipping, ran merrily after 

The wonderful music with shouting and laughter. 

Make a list of the words and groups of words 
used by Browning to modify "boys and girls." 
Make another list of the words or groups of words 
he uses to modify "ran." 

d. Make each of the following sentences more 
interesting and more vivid by adding suitable 
modifiers of the subject substantive and the verb : 

The sun shines. Schoolhouse stands. 

Flags wave. Flowers bloom. 

Soldiers march. Leaves shimmer. 

Bayonets gleam. Butterflies nutter. 

Bands play. Stars twinkle. 

People cheer. Streams flow. 

Children sing. Wind blows. 

Crops ripened. Ships sailed. 

Boat capsized. Automobile stopped. 



138 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

V. POSITION OF MODIFIERS 

What do the sentences marked (i), (2), and (3) 
mean ? 

(1) The teacher spoke to the boy who dropped the 
book sharply. 

Did the boy drop the book sharply ? or did the 
teacher speak sharply ? If the latter, " sharply " 
should be placed near "spoke," and the sentence 
should read, 

The teacher spoke sharply to the boy who dropped 
the book. 

(2) Wanted, a pony suitable for a child with a gentle 
disposition. 

Was the child's disposition in the writer's mind ? 
If he meant the pony's disposition, " pony " and 
" disposition " should be brought closer together, 
and the sentence should read, 

Wanted, for a child, a pony with a gentle disposition. 

or 
Wanted, a pony with a gentle disposition, suitable 
for a child. 

In the last sentence, the comma after "disposi- 
tion" is necessary. Why? 

(3) The owl only comes out in the night. 

Does the owl do nothing but come out in the 
night? If "only" is meant to modify "in the 



POSITION OF MODIFIERS 139 

night," it should be placed just before those 
words, and the sentence should read, 
The owl comes out only in the night. 

Modifiers should be so placed that there can be no doubt 
as to which word or words they modify. 

Whenever possible, a modifier should be placed next to 
the word or words it modifies. 

The word only requires special care. Usually it should 
be placed immediately before what it is meant to modify. 

a. What is the difference in meaning in the 
following sentences ? 

Only he lost his hat. 
He only lost his hat. 
He lost only his hat. 
He lost his only hat. 
He lost his hat only. 

b. Make the meaning of these sentences clear 
by rearranging the words : 

(1) The man only caught four fish. 
(a) I was so frightened that I wished I could run 
away a hundred times. 

(3) They turned back without catching a fish to the 
shore. 

(4) The strawberries came in a small round basket 
which we ate. • 

(5) Uncle Charles came to see us often. He seemed 
glad to see us always. He asked us often to visit him. 

(6) To rent : A house for a small family, well fur- 
nished except the upper story. 



140 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(7) A fresh car of fruit has just arrived. 

(8) He was kept after school for pinching his brother 
half an hour. 

(9) Take one of the powders before going to bed in a 
little water. 

(10) My father hurt his back by lifting the end of 
last week. 

(11) We saw a man plowing a field with one arm. 

(12) I thought the boat would upset several times. 

(13) For sale : A Ford runabout very little used by 
a physician about to move away with self-starting 
attachment. 

(14) Benjamin Franklin was seen once bringing some 
paper to his printing office from the place where he 
had purchased it in a wheelbarrow. 

c. Insert the word "only" in the right place in 
the following sentences : 

(1) This picture cost twenty-five cents. 

(2) We had gonea short distancewhen it began to rain. 

(3) The man charged me twenty cents. 

(4) The child said she was seven years old. 

(5) I got wet up to my ankles. 

d. Write an advertisement for a newspaper. 
You may advertise something lost, found, for rent, 
or for sale. 

VI. ADJECTIVES 

Why is it right to say "She reads well" and 
wrong to say " She reads good " ? To understand 
the reason, you must study two kinds of modifiers. 



ADJECTIVES 141 

In the sentence, 

The song birds nearly all build low, 
"The," "song," and "all" are modifiers of the 
noun "birds." 

A word used to modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun 
is called an Adjective. 

"Low" modifies the verb "build," and 
" nearly " modifies the adjective " all." 

A word used to modify the meaning of a verb or a 
modifier is called an Adverb. 

We will first study adjectives. They are of 
several kinds : 



(1) Adjectives that describe, 

telling what kind 

(2) Adjectives that point out, 

telling which 

(3) Adjectives that tell 

how many or how much 



Song 

Blue 

Timid 

Young 
/This 
[Your 

A 

One 

No 



bird. 



Adjectives that describe are called Descriptive Adjectives. 

Adjectives that point out, or tell how many or 
how much, do not describe ; they limit the mean- 
ing of the noun. 

Adjectives that limit without describing are called Limit- 
ing Adjectives. 



stream 


voice 


tree 


bird 


rain 


fire 


smile 


house 


dog 



142 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

a. Mention as many adjectives as you can 
think of that might be used to modify each of 
the following nouns. When you mention an ad- 
jective, tell whether it is a descriptive or a limiting 
adjective : 

sun sky wind 

air mist leaves 

day face clock 

b. Make a list of the* adjectives in the sentences 
under Using Modifiers (page 136). 

c. Point out the adjectives in the following 
sentences and tell the noun which each modifies : 

(1) Out of the houses the rats came tumbling; 
Great rats, small rats, lean rats, brawny rats, 
Brown rats, black rats^ gray rats, tawny rats, 
Grave old plodders, gay young friskers. 

— Robert Browning 

(2) I spent the whole afternoon in a ramble to the sea- 
shore. It was a beautiful, warm, sunny afternoon, one 
of the pleasantest days of the whole year. In some 
warm spots there was a pleasant buzz of many insects. 

— Nathaniel Hawthorne 

(3) Bright summer comes "along the sky, 

And paints the glowing year; 
Where'er we turn the raptured eye, 
Her splendid tints appear. 

— Leigh Hunt 

d. Select an object that you have in mind, and 
mention five adjectives that might be used to 



ARTICLES 143 

describe it. Let your classmates tell what object 
you have in mind from the adjectives you use to 
describe it. Were your adjectives well chosen ? 

VII. ARTICLES 

Read aloud the following paragraph by John 
Burroughs, emphasizing slightly the underlined 
words : 

A man has a sharper eye than a dog, or a fox, or than 
any of the wild creatures, but not so sharp an ear or 
nose. But in the birds he finds his match. How 
quickly the old turkey discovers the hawk, a mere 
speck against the sky, and how quickly the hawk dis- 
covers you if you happen to be secreted in the bushes, 
or behind the fence near which he alights! 

Every noun in these sentences except one 
("match") is modified by "a," "an," or "the." 

The adjectives "a," " an," and " the " are called Articles. 

"The" is called the Definite Article, because 
it points definitely to a particular object or ob- 
jects : as, "The hawk" ; "I sprang to the window." 

"A" or "an" is called the Indefinite Article, 
because it selects any object or objects : as, "A 
man" ; "I sprang to a window." 

"A" and "an" are different forms of the same 
word and mean "one." The choice between 



i 4 4 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

them is determined by sound. Before a vowel 
sound "an" is used; before a consonant sound 
"a" is used : as, "an ear," "a dog." 

Persons sometimes make mistakes in choosing 
between "a" and "an, " because sound and spell- 
ing do not always coincide. For example, unit 
begins with the vowel u; but the beginning sound 
is that of the consonant y in "you." Hence we 
should say "a unit." Honor begins with the 
consonant h; but the beginning sound is that of 
the vowel o. Hence we should say "an honor." 

a. Put the proper article, "an" or "a," before 
each of the following expressions, and tell why it 
is right. Consider the sound, not the spelling : 

article onion umpire house uninformed reader 
peach union European hotel useful invention 
orange uniform hour eagle honest man 

b. What is the difference in meaning between 
the expressions in the first column and those in 
the second? Remember that "the" points to a 
particular object (or objects), and that "a" or 
"an" means "one." 

(i) Grass is green. The grass is green. 

(2) Birds are singing. The birds are singing. 

(3) He has trout in his He has a trout in his 

basket. basket. 

(4) Bring me a candle. Bring me the candle. 



SINGULAR AND PLURAL ADJECTIVES 145 

(5) A black and white cat. A black and a white cat. 

(6) Wanted a cook and Wanted a cook and a 

housemaid. housemaid. 

(7) Man is a strange crea- The man is a strange 

ture. creature. 



VIII. SINGULAR AND PLURAL ADJECTIVES 

a. The adjectives this and that are the only- 
adjectives that have separate forms for the plural. 
The plural of "this" is "these"; the plural of 
"that" is "those." We say, 

This book, these books. 
That book, those books. 

Be on your guard against misusing these adjectives 
with the words sort and kind. 

The words sort and kind are nouns in the singular 
number. It is correct to say, 

This kind of apples is sweet, 
That sort of apples is sweet. 

It is wrong to say, 

These kind of apples are sweet, 
Those sort of apples are sweet ; 

because the subject substantives in these sentences 
are the nouns " kind " and " sort," each of which is in 
the singular number. Therefore the adjective as 
well as the verb should be in the singular number. 



146 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

It is right to say 

These kinds of apples are sweet, 
because in this sentence the noun " kinds " is 
plural. 

Tell which of the italicized words is right in the 
following sentences, and tell why it is correct : 

(i) I don't like {this, these, that, those) sort of 
caramels. 

(2) {This, these, that, those) sort of nuts comes from 
Brazil. 

(3) Why did you buy {this, these, that, those) kind of 
gloves ? 

(4) {This, these, that, those) kind of boats is not safe. 

(5) {This, these, that, those) kinds of flowers are easy 
to raise. 

b. The pronoun them is never used by good 
speakers and writers as an adjective, or as the 
subject of a sentence. It is therefore wrong to say, 

Them books are mine. 

Them are my books. 

Fill each blank with the proper word {those, 
them) : 

(1) Where did you get apples? 

(2) Charlotte gave to me. 

(3) Look out for dogs. 

(4) I am not afraid of . 

(5) What are you going to do with sticks? 

(6) I am going to burn up. 

(7) What are things you have in your hand? 

are hazelnuts. 



ADVERBS 147 

c. Write five interesting sentences in which you 
use "those" correctly. 

Write a sentence in which you use "them" 
correctly. 

d. Kind of and sort of should not be followed by 
a or an, because "a" or "an" means "one." 

Right: What kind of flower is that? 

Wrong: What kind of a flower is that? (This is 
the same as saying, What kind of one flower is that?) 

Right: That is a queer sort of bird. 

Wrong: That is a queer sort of a bird. (Why is it 
wrong ?) 

e. Kind of and sort of are not used by good 
writers and speakers to modify verbs or adjectives. 
They use instead somewhat, rather, a little, and 
similar words. 

Right: I am a little tired, or somewhat tired. 
Wrong: I am kind of tired. 
Right: John is rather lazy. 
Wrong: John is sort of lazy. 

IX. ADVERBS 

An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, 
or another adverb. 

Most persons like to travel, but they travel 
differently. Some travel fast, some travel slowly, 
some travel afoot, some travel luxuriously. The 



THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 



adverbs "fast," "slowly," "afoot," and "luxuri- 
ously," modifying "travel," express differences in 
manner; they tell how. 

Some persons travel here, some travel abroad. 
The adverbs "here" and "abroad" express differ- 
ence in place; they tell where. 

Some persons traveled yesterday, some are 
traveling now, some travel often. The adverbs 
"yesterday," "now," and "often" express differ- 
ences in time ; they tell when. 

Some persons travel little, some travel much. 
The adverbs "little" and "much" express differ- 
ences in degree; they tell how much. 

Other examples of adverbs are : 



She danced 



Adverbs of manner, telling 

how. 



well, 
gracefully 

early. 1 Adverbs of time, telling 

afterwards, j when. 

there. 1 Adverbs of place, telling 

everywhere, j where. 

once. 1 Adverbs of degree, telling 

excessively. J how much. 

Adverbs of degree are often used to modify 
adjectives and other adverbs : as, 

They traveled fast. 
They traveled very fast. 



ADVERBS 149 



Here 


are 


some 


other examples : 








Adverb 


Adjective 








modifying 
an adjective 








[ somewhat ] 




It 


was a 


, most 
1 very 


\ dangerous road. 
Adverb Adverb 

modifying 
an adverb 



very 
The driver drove < more [carefully. 

I to ° J 

a. Mention as many adverbs as you can that 

might be used in the following sentences to modify 
the verbs by telling how: 

Brooks flow. Birds sing. 

Rain falls. Trees grow. 

The team played. She spoke. 

Soldiers fight. A tempest blows. 

We waited. A breeze blows. 

b. Mention as many adverbs as you can that 
might be used to modify the verbs in the following 
sentences by telling when: 

I wrote a letter. The bell will ring. 

Speak the truth. He spoke of the war. 

They went home. He did his best. 

c. Mention as many adverbs as you can that 
might be used in the following sentences to modify 
the verbs by telling where : 



5° 



THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 



too 


much 


doubly 


more 


somewhat 


slightly 


little 


partly 


nearly 


rather 


thoroughly 


almost 


wholly 


quite 


merely 



The dog jumped. He threw his hat. 

The train moved. A house will be built. 

The bird flew. A cherry tree stood. 

d. Make sentences in which the following words 
are used as adverbs telling how much. Which 
words do the adverbs modify ? Try to make in- 
teresting sentences. 

much 
ly little 

ughly almost 

e. Make interesting sentences out of the short 
sentences in a, b, c, and d> by adding as many 
modifiers as you wish to both the subject and the 
predicate. 

/. Point out the adverbs in the following sen- 
tences and tell (i) the word that each adverb 
modifies ; (2) what each adverb expresses — man- 
ner, time, place, or degree : 

1. Here he comes again! 

2. How carefully he walks! 

3. He climbs up slowly and painfully. 

4. Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship. 

5. Yet she sailed softly, too. 

6. Up the English came, too late. 

7. Above were the stars. 

8. Below was the sea. 

9. Around was the silence of night. 
10. A leafy May and a warm June 

Bring on a harvest very soon. 



THE FORM OF ADVERBS 151 
X. THE FORM OF ADVERBS 

Read the following songs : 

1. 

This is the ballad the Bluebird sings, 

Unto his mate replying, 
Shaking the tune from his wings 

While he is flying: 

Surely, surely, surely, 
Life is dear 
Even here. 
Blue above, 
You to love 
Purely, purely, purely. 

— van Dyke 
2. 

Jog on, jog on, the footpath way, 

And merrily hent the stile-a; 
A merry heart goes all the day, 

Your sad tires in a mile-a. 

— Shakespeare 

In the first song, from what adjectives are the 
adverbs "surely" and "purely" formed? How 
are these adverbs formed from those adjectives ? 

In the second song, the word "hent," which is 
no longer used, means "lay hold of." The "a" 
at the end of the second and fourth lines has no 
meaning. It is like an additional musical note, 
and is pronounced "ah." 



152 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

After this explanation, read the second song 
again. Does it mean that hard things seem easier 
if we are merry about them ? 

"Merry" in the song is an adjective modifying 
"heart." "Merrily" is an adverb modifying 
"hent" (lay hold of). How is the adverb 
"merrily" formed from the adjective "merry"? 

Compare the adjectives and the adverbs in 
these sentences : 

A gentle breeze blew over the lake. 
A breeze blew gently over the lake. . 

A sweet song reached our ears. 
Some person was singing sweetly. 

This is an easy lesson. 
You can learn it easily. 

Wind from the east is a sure sign of rain. 
Wind from the east shows it will surely rain. 

I had a good sleep. 
I slept well. 

An honest boy works honestly. 

Good writers and speakers form adverbs of manner by 
adding " ly " to descriptive adjectives. 

The following exceptions to this rule are im- 
portant : 

(i) If the adjective already ends in "ly," as 
"lively," "friendly," there is no corresponding 
adverb. Use instead a group of words, such as 



THE FORM OF ADVERBS 153 

"in a lively manner," "in a friendly way" : as, 
A friendly dog acts in a friendly way. 

(2) In a few cases which must be learned by 
observation, good writers and speakers use ad- 
jectives as adverbs without adding "ly" : as, 
A fast train runs fast. 

It is wrong to say "He sure was surprised," or 
"He did it easy," or "I played bad," because 
"sure," "easy, " and "bad " are not among the 
adjectives which good writers and speakers use as 
adverbs without adding "ly." 

a. Tell which of the italicized words is correct, 
and give the reason: 

(1) She reads {good, well). 

(2) The door shuts {easy, easily). 

(3) Deal {gentle, gently) with them. 

(4) He acted {awkward, awkwardly) in her presence. 

(5) Will you come ? {Sure, surely) I will. 

(6) Speak {slow, slowly) and {distinct, distinctly). 

(7) He {scarce, scarcely) felt the blow. 

(8) A person should dress {suitable, suitably) to his 
station. 

(9) He threw the ball {badly, bad). 

(10) She danced most {graceful, gracefully). 

(11) The dog acted {strange, strangely). 

(12) The airship sailed along {beautifully, beautiful). 

(13) The new car runs very {easy, easily). 

(14) It {surely, sure) was a narrow escape. 

(15) He is {nearly, near) well again. 



154 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

b. Tell the difference between : 

(i) We found the way easy. We found the way 
easily. 

(2) The potatoes are boiling soft. The potatoes are 
boiling softly. 

(3) He appeared prompt. He appeared promptly. 

(4) The fruit in that window looks good. 

(5) The fruit in that window looks well. 

XL COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE 

Read the following selection from the story of 

Snowdrop : 

The Queen's most precious possession was a magic 
mirror. This mirror could always tell who was the 
most beautiful person in the world, and every day 
the Queen would draw the silken curtain aside and 
look into its wonderful depth, and say: 

" Mirror, mirror on the wall, 
Have I the fairest face of all ? " 

And the mirror would answer, 

" Never in all the world was seen 
A fairer face than thine, O Queen ! " 

One day the magic mirror suddenly gave quite a differ- 
ent answer to the Queen's proud question. For when 
she said quite carelessly, 

" Mirror, mirror on the wall, 
Have I the fairest face of all ? " — 



COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE 155 

what was the Queen's surprise and rage to hear the 
mirror say, 

" Hpwever fair thy face may be, 
Snowdrop is fairer far than thee! " 

How many forms of the same adjective can 
you find in this selection? "Fair," "fairer," 
"fairest" are all forms of the adjective "fair"; 
but they denote fairness in different degrees. 

"Fair," the simple form of the adjective, is 
called the Positive Degree. 

"Fairer," denoting more fairness, is called the 
Comparative Degree. 

"Fairest," denoting most fairness, is called the 
Superlative Degree. 

The three degrees of an adjective or an adverb are called 
its Comparison. 

XII. FORMING THE COMPARATIVE AND 
THE SUPERLATIVE 

I. Note the following two methods of forming 
the comparative and superlative : • 

f T31TPT 

The mirror said Snowdrop was { '. . 

[ more fair. 

The Queen considered herself the { ' . 

[ most fair. 

In what two ways is the comparative here 
formed ? the superlative ? 



1 5 6 



THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 



The choice between these two ways of forming 
the comparative and the superlative is largely a 
matter of taste. . 

Good writers and speakers generally use the method of 
comparison that sounds best. 

They do not use both at the same time ; it is 
quite wrong to say " the most beautifullest." 

2. Good writers and speakers use " more " and "most " 
to form the comparative and the superlative of adverbs end- 
ing in" ly." 

I learned this lesson easily. 

I learned it more easily than the last one. 

I learned Monday's lesson most easily of all. 

3. The following very common adjectives and 
adverbs have special comparatives and superla- 
tives : 



Positive 


Comparative 


Superlative 


bad 


worse 


worst 


good (adjective) 


better 


best 


well (adverb) 


better 


best 


little 


less 


least 


many 


more 


most 


much 


more 


most 


far 


farther 


farthest 



a. How would you compare the following 
adjectives and adverbs ? 

honest good beautiful hard little 

fearless careful well difficult big 



COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE 157 

b. Tell which of the italicized expressions is 
better, and give the reason : 

(1) This is the (usefullest, most useful) book I have. 

(2) That is the (prettiest, most pretty) dress she has. 

(3) I can study (easiest, most easily) in the morning. 

(4) He writes (plainer, more plainly) than he used to. 

(5) We ought to value our privileges (higher, more 
highly) . 

(6) Donald works (quieter, more quietly) than the 
rest. 

(7) You came (sooner, more soon) than we expected. 

(8) She works (most hardest, most hard, hardest). 

XIII. USING THE COMPARATIVE AND 
SUPERLATIVE 

Why do careful speakers avoid saying "This is 
the best of the two," and " I like that best of 
any " ? 

The comparative degree properly implies a comparison of 
two things or sets of things ; the superlative of more than 
two. 

Therefore it is right to say, "Who was the 
fairer, Snowdrop or the Queen ?" "Snowdrop was 
the fairest of all." Good speakers sometimes use 
the superlative when only two things are com- 
pared : as, "Who was the fairest, Snowdrop or 
the Queen?" But it is better, when two things 
or sets of things are compared, to use the com- 



158 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

parative degree: as, "Snowdrop was the fairer of 
the two." 

Many persons make mistakes when using the 
comparative or the superlative with the word any. 

" Any " means " one, no matter which," or " some, no 
matter which." 

Wrong: Snowdrop was fairer than any person. 
(Because Snowdrop herself was a person.) 

Right: Snowdrop was fairer than any other person. 

Wrong: , Snowdrop's face was the fairest of any. 
(This is the same as saying her face was the fairest of 
one or some.) 

Right: Snowdrop's face was the fairest of all faces. 

a. Tell which of the forms in parenthesis is right 
in each of the following sentences, and explain the 
reason : 

(i) Both books are good, but the {earlier, earliest) is 
the {better, best). 

(2) London is larger than {any, any other) city in 
Europe. 

(3) Chicago is the largest of {all, any, all other) cities 
in the Middle West. 

(4) Which is the {stronger, strongest), John or Ted ? 

(5) Which balloon went the {farther, farthest) in the 
big race ? 

b. In the following sentences use the correct 
form of the word in parentheses, and tell why it is 
correct. 



COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE 159 

(1) Which is {large), New York, Paris, or London ? 
(2)' Of two evils, always choose the {little). 

(3) Which can run the {fast), Conner or Boardman ? 

(4) Which is the {far) east, Boston, New York, or 
Philadelphia ? 

(5) Which is the {large) number, the minuend or the 
subtrahend ? 

(6) Both apples and peaches are good. It is hard to 
tell which I like {well). 

(7) We went one way and came the other. It would 
be hard to say which way was {bad). 

(8) He and I are in the same class. He is the {bright), 
but I study {hard), so we manage to keep together. 

c. Every one of the following sentences is 
wrong. Tell why each is wrong and what change 
is needed to make it right. 

(1) This dress, of all others, is the one I like best. 
(2) I like it better than any I have. (3) My mother, 
too, likes it best of any. 

(4) New York is more crowded than any city in 
America. (5) Paris is the most crowded of any city in 
France. 

(6) Snowdrop was fairer than all. 

d. If we wished to compare the large area of 
Texas with the area of other states, we might say : 

" Texas has a larger area than any other state," or, 
"Texas has the largest area of all the states." 

Compare in the same way the following things, 
using the comparative degree, then the superlative. 



160 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(i) Orlando, the fastest runner ; the other boys in 
the school. 

(2) Rosalind, the most graceful dancer ; the other 
girls at the party. 

(3) Roland, the best horse ; the other horses in the 
stable. 

(4) Mt. Everest, the highest mountain; other moun- 
tains. 

(5) Iron, the most useful metal ; the other metals. 

XIV. KIPLING ON "ELEGANT" SCENERY 
Read the following paragraph : 

We struck a road that overhung a river, and I was 
lost in admiration of the driver's skill as he sent his 
four big horses along that winding road. There was 
no room for any sort of an accident — a shy or a 
swerve would have dropped us sixty feet into the 
roaring Gardiner River. Some of the persons in the 
coach remarked that the scenery was " elegant." 
Wherefore, even at the risk of my own life, I did 
urgently desire an accident and the massacre of some 
of the more prominent citizens. What " elegance " 
lies in a thousand-foot pile of honey-colored rock, riven 
into peak and battlement, the highest peak defiantly 
crowned by an eagle's nest, the eaglet peering into the 
gulf and screaming for his food, I could not for the 
life of me understand. 

— Rudyard Kipling 
(In American Notes) 

What word should Kipling have omitted from 
the fourth line ? Why ? 



"ELEGANT" SCENERY 161 

Whether or not the "prominent citizens " 
merited the "massacre" that Kipling desired for 
them, they certainly showed little discrimination 
in selecting the adjective "elegant" to describe 
wild, rugged, barren scenery. "Elegant" has just 
the opposite meaning; it means refined, polished, 
graceful. Let us study Kipling's description of 
the scene, and then try to find better adjectives 
than "elegant" to put into the mouths of the 
prominent citizens. 

Notice first the word "overhung " in the first 
sentence. What picture of the road does that 
give you ? 

In the second sentence we read that "an acci- 
dent . . . would have dropped us sixty feet into 
the roaring Gardiner River." What does this 
add to the picture of the overhung road ? 

In the same sentence, how does Kipling impress 
upon us the narrowness of the road ? 

What does the adjective "winding" add to the 
picture of the road and its dangers ? 

How does the adjective "roaring" add to the 
picture ? 

By this careful use of words, Kipling has shown 
us a wild, dangerous road. He felt the danger. 
He shows that he felt it, by telling us what held 
his attention, — the skill of the driver. Notice 



162 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

how he wins our confidence first in the driver, 
then in the horses, using the word "big" to de- 
scribe the horses. Isn't "big" much better and 
stronger here than "large," or any other word ? 

Thus far we have been looking at the side of 
the road that overhung the river. We found it 
full of danger, but discovered no "elegance" in it. 
Now let us look at the other side of the road. 
We have a "thousand-foot pile" of rock. Its 
summit is made up of "peaks," sharp and pointed, 
and "battlements," — the very name suggesting 
war and strife, the opposite of refined elegance. 
Even the way in which the peaks and battlements 
were formed suggests strife ; they were "riven," — 
that is, " torn asunder." Surely there was nothing 
refined or elegant in a force that could tear rocks 
into peaks and battlements. 

But we have not yet quite completed the pic- 
ture. The top of the highest peak was "defiantly 
crowned by an eagle's nest." Is any bird wilder, 
freer, fiercer than the eagle ? Finally, is there 
anything elegant in the eaglet "screaming for his 
food"? 

Now can you blame Kipling for being aroused, 
angered at the absurd use, the abuse, of the 
adjective "elegant" ? The intensity of his ire 
is shown by his use of the word "massacre"; 



OVERWORKED ADJECTIVES 163 

he wants the prominent citizens not merely 
slaughtered, but "slaughtered with unnecessary 
cruelty." 

The adjective "elegant" is a perfectly good 
word, but it was not the right word to use in this 
place, because it is not true to the idea to be 
expressed. 

a. Make a list of adjectives that would truly 
and forcibly describe the scene portrayed by 
Kipling. 

XV. OVERWORKED ADJECTIVES 

Below is a list of adjectives that are much 
overworked, because they are made to do their 
own work and the work of other words as well. 

Learn to use words only in their true sense. 

a. Elegant means "refined," "polished." 

It is correct to speak of "an elegant gentleman," 
"elegant manners," "elegant ornamentation," 
"elegant dress," "an elegant house." 

Don't say, "an elegant view." Use beautiful, 
impressive, grand, or some adjective truly descrip- 
tive. 

Don't say, "an elegant game of tennis." Use 
excellent, interesting, masterly, or some other true 
adjective. 



1 64 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Don't say, "an elegant cake." Use delicious, 
or some adjective that truly describes the cake. 

Don't say, "an elegant march." Use spirited, 
rousing, or some other exact adjective. 

b. Nice means "exact," "accurate," "particu- 
lar," "fine," "delicate." 

Don't say, "a nice boy." Use agreeable, good, 
honest, intelligent, courteous, or some other true 
adjective. 

Don't say, "a nice time"; use pleasant, jolly, 
enjoyable. 

Don't say, "Tom is nice to everybody"; use 
kind, courteous, friendly. 

c. Awful means "inspiring or impressing with 
awe." It carries the idea of awe, dread, fear, 
solemnity. How absurd then to talk of "an 
awfully good time," "an awfully pretty girl," 
"an awfully good dinner," "an awfully good 
fellow." 

Don't say, "an awful mistake" ; use serious. 

Don't say, " awful manners"; use rude or 
uncivil. 

Don't say, " awful treatment"; use cruel or 
unkind, or some other true adjective. 

d. Don't say, All of. "Of" is unnecessary. 

Wrong : I ate all of the bread. 
Right : I ate all the bread. 



OVERWORKED ADJECTIVES 165 

e. Make lists of the adjectives you can think 
of that might be appropriately used to describe — 

a gale a banquet a game a moving-picture 

a rainstorm a book a story July 

a meal a lesson a party December 

a voice a speaker a day weather 

/. Have you ever heard the following words 
used incorrectly ? Do you know any one who 
overworks them ? 



lovely 


splendid 


utterly 


nasty 


beautiful 


gorgeous 


disgusting 


crazy 


sweet 


great 


fascinating 


rotten 


fine 


wonderful 


stunning 


howling 


ghastly 


jolly 


silly 


funny 


charming 


grand 


horrid 


fierce 



Find the correct meaning of each of the above 
words, and use each correctly in a sentence. 

Grand properly implies "grandeur"; gorgeous, 
"splendid colors"; splendid, "splendor"; lovely, 
"surpassing loveliness"; magnificent, "magnif- 
icence." 

Avoid the extravagant use of such expressions 
as perfectly lovely, perfectly dear, perfectly madden- 
ing, how nice, how interesting. 

Be careful to choose the adjectives that exactly express 
your meaning. 



1 66 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

XVI. MORE ADJECTIVES OFTEN MISUSED 

a. Mad, angry. — Mad means "insane" ; in the 
sense of "angry" it is not used by good speakers 
and writers. 

(i) His sarcastic manner makes me . 

(2) That is nothing to get at. 

b. Dumb, stupid. — Dumb properly means 
" mute," " silent." It is not used by good speakers 
and writers in the sense of "stupid." 

(1) A man who cannot write with wit on a proper 
subject is dull and . 

(2) A deaf and person. 

(3) I was struck with astonishment. 

(4) Judging from his recitations, I should say that 
John is either lazy or . 

c. Funny, odd. — Funny means "comical"; in 
the sense of "strange" or "odd" it is not in good 
use. 

(1) It is he never told me of his marriage. 

(2) He made the boys laugh by drawing pictures 

on his slate. 

(3) You must have thought it we didn't send for 

you. 

(4) He amused us with stories. 

d. Latest, last. — Latest refers to time : as, 
"The latest news." Last denotes that which 
comes after all others in space or in a series: as, 
"The Last of the Mohicans." 



MORE ADJECTIVES OFTEN MISUSED 167 

(1) The men in the procession. 

(2) The fashion. 

(3) The house on the street. 

(4) Have you read the novel ? 

(5) The football game of the season • will be 

played with the Yale Freshmen. 

e. Aggravating, irritating. — Aggravating means 
"making worse in some way." It is often mis- 
used for irritating, exasperating, or provoking. 

(1) Some of his remarks were . 

(2) He has an manner. 

(3) He is the most person I know. 

(4) It was so to lose the train ! 

(5) The heat and the noise were to his headache. 

/. Healthy, healthful, wholesome. — That is 
healthy which is in good health ; that is healthful 
or wholesome which produces health. Wholesome 
commonly applies to food. 

(1) Gardening is a recreation for a man of study 

or business. 

(2) food in a climate makes a man. 

(3) A situation. A constitution. 

g. Tell the difference in meaning between: 

(1) The boy is dumb. The boy is stupid. 

(2) His actions were funny. His actions were odd. 

(3) This is a healthy plant. This is a whole some plant. 

(4) His latest attempt. His last attempt. 

(5) The latest edition. The last edition. 

(6) She became mad. She became angry. 



168 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

XVII. SOME ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS 
OFTEN CONFOUNDED 

a. Good , well. — Good is used as an adjective 
only; the adverb corresponding to it is well. 
Thus, "He had a good sleep" ; "He slept well." 

(i) George played in the football game this 

afternoon ; he is a runner. 

(2) She embroiders very . 

(3) This pen will not write . 

(4) He did the work as as I could expect. 

(5) This is a picture ; the artist paints . 

b. Most, almost. — Most denotes "the greatest 
number, quantity, or degree." It never means 
"nearly," which is the proper meaning of almost. 
We say, ''Most of the boys are here; the time 
has almost come." 

(1) I have finished my lesson. 

(2) You will find me in my office any day. 

(3) This wheat is too thick. 

(4) boys like play. 

(5) It rains in some places every day. 

c. Near, nearly. — Near is an adjective; the 
corresponding adverb is nearly. 

(1) It isn't finished yet. 

(2) I am dead. 

(3) He is not so young as I. 

(4) We are the end of the term ; our school-days 

are over. 

(5) The cake is done. 



DOUBLE NEGATIVES 169 

d. Some, somewhat. — Some is an adjective : as, 
"Some water." The corresponding adverb is 
somewhat: as, "He is somewhat weary." 

(1) Thank you, I feel better this morning. 

(2) He has resemblance to his father. 

(3) Dorothy looks like her mother. 

(4) Yes, I'm frightened, I admit. 

(5) It provoked me . 

e. Real, really, very. — Real is properly an 
adjective, meaning "not imaginary or counter- 
feit" : as, "real diamonds." It should not be 
used for the adverbs really and very. It is in- 
correct to say, "This is real pretty." Why ? 

(1) He is dead. 

(2) Yes, I am old ; I am sixty. 

(3) He speaks well, doesn't he ? 

(4) I am glad you have come. 

(5) It was kind in you to send me flowers. 

(6) She came home looking well after her long 

visit. 

(7) Homer tells us that the blood of the gods is not 
blood, but only something like it. 

XVIII. DOUBLE NEGATIVES 

Compare the following sentences : 

(1) I can see a bird anywhere. 

(2) I can not see a bird anywhere. 

(3) I can see no bird anywhere. 

(4) I can see a bird nowhere. 



170 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

The first sentence is affirmative ; the speaker 
sees a bird. The other three sentences are nega- 
tive ; each is made negative by the use of one 
negative word ("not," "no," or "nowhere "). 

One negative makes a denial ; two negatives contradict 
each other. 

"I did not see nothing" contains two negatives, 
"not" and "nothing," which contradict each 
other ; the sentence means that the speaker did 
see something. 

a. Change each of the following sentences into 
a negative sentence in at least two ways, as in 
sentences (2), (3), or (4) above. Beware of double 
negatives contradicting each other. You may 
change words and use contractions, if you wish : 

(1) She told somebody. 

(2) I gave James an apple. • 

(3) He has something to say. 

(4) I said something. 

(5) I saw something on the desk. 

b. Compare the following correct sentences : 

(1) I can not see the airplane. 

(2) I can hardly see the airplane. 

"Can hardly" means "can only with difficulty." 
What would " can't hardly " mean ? Does 
"can't hardly" make sense ? 



CHAPTER SEVEN 

THE CHOICE OF WORDS 
I. IMPORTANCE OF A LARGE VOCABULARY 

Probably Kipling's anger (page 160) at the 
absurd use of the adjective "elegant " to describe 
a wilderness abounding in danger, was due to his 
own rich command of fitting words. Why could 
he use so many true and forcible words, while his 
fellow-travelers could think of only a wholly 
inappropriate word ? Kipling, like all careful and 
thoughtful writers, has made a life study of words. 
He has been constantly adding words to his stock, 
always selecting the best, the most appropriate, 
to express his thoughts. 

Kipling's fellow travelers, on the other hand, 
were probably lazy and indifferent respecting 
language ; probably they did not realize that their 
lack of words handicapped them in their efforts 
to express ideas. 

What would you think of a woman who, with 
dresses, that were suitable for all occasions, hanging 
in closets, wore the same gown when she worked in 



172 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

the kitchen, when she made afternoon calls, when 
she went driving, when she went to church, when 
she went to a party, — the same gown in the hot 
days of summer and in the cold days of winter ? 
How absurd ! you say. But this is the way many 
people use words ; with a whole dictionary at 
hand from which to select words suitable for all 
times and occasions, they use the same few words 
over and over again, in season and out of season, 
in place and out of place. 

One who would learn to speak and write truthfully, 
clearly, forcibly, and beautifully, must study words. 



II. SYNONYMS 

Read the following selection : 

When we left the harbor scarcely a breath of wind 
was stirring. Little breezes, the lightest of zephyrs, 
tripped before us and rippled the top of the water. 
As we passed Outer Cape a sudden gust shook the sails. 

" I think we are in for a squall," said Tom. 

" Nonsense ! " I answered, " and, if we are, the 
Seagull can weather any tempest that may blow." 

I had hardly finished speaking, when a mighty blast 
bent the masts, and the gale swept down upon us. . . . 
Never, never shall I forget that hurricane ! As Tom 
said after we were safe ashore, " It was a whirlwind, 
a tempest, a tornado, and a hurricane rolled into one." 



SYNONYMS 173 

In the above selection, how many different nouns 
are used for wind ? Read the selection aloud using 
"wind " in place of all underlined words. 

Does it sound as well ? 

Do you get as clear an idea of the meaning ? 

Which words suggest a gentle wind ? 

Which a strong wind ? 

Which an overwhelming wind ? 

A word that means nearly the same as another is called 
a Synonym. 

The words gust, squall, tempest, blast, gale, hurri- 
cane, tornado, and whirlwind are synonyms, be- 
cause they all mean strong, rough wind. But 
each has a meaning of its own that makes it more 
suitable for a special occasion or need. 

III. FINDING SYNONYMS 

In the last lesson little breezes are called zephyrs. 
Here are some things that writers have said zephyrs 
did: 

(a) The zephyrs tripped before us. 

(b) The zephyrs rippled the top of the water. 

(c) A playful zephyr ruffled the robin's feathers. 

(d) A gentle zephyr wafted spicy odors to us. 

(e) The gentlest of zephyrs fluttered the leaves of the 
aspen. 

(/) A vagrant zephyr kissed the rose, 
(g) Dancing zephyrs skimmed the corn. 



skimmed 



174 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Read the verbs in italics in the above sentences. 

Do they not give you ideas of lightness, gentle- 
ness, kindness, playfulness, and peace ? Are not 
these ideas suitable to zephyrs ? 

a. Make lists of adverbs that describe how the 
zephyrs tripped, rippled, fluttered, wafted, ruffled, 
kissed, and skimmed. Try to find several appro- 
priate adverbs for each verb, thus : 

lightly 
gently 
nimbly 
briskly 
lively 
[ softly 

b. In the sentences about the zephyrs (p. 173), 
what adjectives are used to describe them ? 

Make a list of other adjectives that might 
describe a zephyr. Do this by selecting one 
adjective and writing after it all the synonyms 
you can find for that adjective; then selecting 
another adjective of quite different meaning, and 
writing its synonyms, and so on. Your first 
adjective might be vagrant, and its synonyms, 
wandering, rambling, roaming, straying, roving. 

c. Write sentences using for the subject gale, 
tempest, or hurricane, instead of zephyr (see p. 173). 
In these sentences tell what a strong wind does — 
to the boat, the top of the water, the robin, the 



FINDING SYNONYMS 175 

trees, the rose, and the corn. Before writing 
each sentence, picture in your mind the effect a 
tempest would have on each object named. For 
example, a tempest would not trip before a boat; 
it would drive the boat before it, or beat it back 
from its course. 

Use strong words ; you are writing about a 
strong force. 

d. Here are some words that might be used in 
speaking of a knight. 

(1) Groups of adjectives describing the knight: 

Brave, bold, courageous, gallant, heroic, valiant, 
valorous, dauntless. 

Proud, haughty, arrogant, spirited. 
Strong, vigorous, sturdy, powerful. 

(2) Verbs telling how he won his battles : 

Vanquished, overcame, subdued, conquered, sub- 
jugated, defeated. 

(3) Nouns naming the animal on which the 
knight rode : 

Horse, charger, steed. 

(4) The knight was equally at home in — 
Castle, hut, cottage, cabin, hovel, mansion. 

e. Make a list of adverbs that might be used 
in speaking or writing about knights. You will 
find many suggestions by studying the synonyms 



176 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

in (i), above. Thus, from the adjectives in (i) 
you can make adverbs by adding the syllable -ly 
to each adjective. 

Fit your adverbs to the verbs under (2), or to 
the following words — stood, walked, gazed, spoke, 
rode, bowed. 

/. Write ten sentences about a knight, using as 
many as possible of the words given above. Try 
to weave your sentences into a connected whole, 
Mke the selection studied about the tempest 
(p. 172). 

IV. USING THE MOST APPROPRIATE 
WORD 

Use the following verbs in sentences, choosing 
each one for its fitness to express your thought. 

a. Loud vocal sounds : 

Called, cried, shouted, screamed, exclaimed, yelled, 
hallooed, shrieked, screeched. 

b. Soft vocal sounds : 

Whispered, murmured, sighed, breathed, muttered, 
whimpered, whined. 

c. Ways of walking : 

Strolled, trudged, sauntered, plodded, tripped, strode, 
strutted, limped, hobbled. 

d. Ways of running : 

Bounded, chased, dashed, fled, raced, sped. 



WORDS OF SPECIAL ASSOCIATION 177 
V. WORDS OF SPECIAL ASSOCIATION 

Each of the nouns in the group given below 
means a company of or collection of the people, 
animals, or objects to which it refers. 

Each of these nouns is associated with certain 
objects ; for example, we may say, a flock of birds 
or a flock of sheep, but we do not say a flock of bees 
or a flock of fish. 

After each noun write a phrase, like of birds or 
of sheep, showing the kind of object with which 
the noun is associated : 



Flock 


school 


swarm 


crowd 


band 


herd 


drove 


gang 


horde 


fleet 


brood 
litter 


pack 
bunch 


congregation 
assembly 


troop 
squad 


covey 
group 



VI. WORDS DENOTING DIFFERENT 
DEGREES 

Synonyms often express different degrees of the 
action, quality, or thing to which they refer. 
For example, having said Monday was cold, I 
may say Tuesday was frigid, instead of saying 
Tuesday was very cold. 

{a) Which of the following words suggests most 
effort ? 

Work, toil, labor, drudgery. 



178 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(b) Which of the following words suggests the 
greatest degree of pleasure ? 

Glad, gay, pleased, cheerful, joyful, gladsome, 
gratified, cheering, joyous, jocund. 

(c) Which of the following words suggests the 
most unhappy feeling ? 

Doleful, dreary, dismal, sorrowful, gloomy, depress- 
ing, sad. 

(d) Which of the following words suggests the 
strongest light ? 

Bright, dazzling, splendid, glaring, brilliant. 

Add as many appropriate words as you can to 
each of the above lists. 

e. Give as many synonyms as you can for 
each of the following words : 

comical help hot 

enemy tall difficult 

old small surprised 

said cold fast 

VII. ANTONYMS 

Read the following fable: 

The Crow and the Farmer 

A crow, seeing a farmer carrying a gun to his field, 
asked him not to harm her children. He promised to 
spare them if they were honest. The crow assured him 



ANTONYMS 179 

that they were, and she further described them as 
beautiful. 

Returning from the field with a number of dead 
birds in his hand, the farmer again met the crow. 

" Oh," she cried, " you have killed all my children ; 
and you promised not to harm them." 

" But, good Madam Crow," replied the farmer, 
" you said your children were honest ; these birds 
were thievish ; I caught them in the act of stealing 
my corn. You said your children were beautiful ; 
these birds are ugly — the ugliest birds I ever saw. 
They cannot be your children." 

In the fable, the mother crow described her 
children as honest and beautiful; the farmer called 
them just the opposite. He said they were thievish 
and ugly. 

A word that is of opposite meaning to another word is 
called an Antonym. 

VIII. STUDYING SENTENCES FOR 
ANTONYMS 

a. Study the quotations below to find out how 
the use of the antonyms affects the force of the 
sentences. 

(1) Down, down, down sinks the Tri-color of France ; 
up, up, up mounts the Star-spangled Banner! 

— The Transfer of Louisiana to the United States 

(2) It is not what we take up, but what we give up 
that makes us rich. 

— Beecher 



180 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(3) Youth is nimble, Age is lame ; 
Youth is hot and bold, 

Age is weak and cold. 

Youth is wild and Age is tame. 

— Shakespeare 

(4) " To look up and not down, 

To look forward and not back, 
To look out and not in, and 
To lend a hand." 

— The Rule of the Harry Wadsworth Club, from "Ten Times One is Ten," 

by E. E. Hale 

(5) But those behind cried, " Forward ! " 

And those before cried, " Back ! " 
And backward now and forward 
Wavers the deep array. 

— Macaulay 

(6) Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I 
give my hand and my heart to this vote. 

{From a supposed speech of John Adams, in favor of the Declaration of 
Independence) 

b. Arrange the antonyms in the above quotations 

in pairs : as, 

down up 

sinks — mounts 

After you have so written them, read them 
aloud and notice the opposite sensations they 
arouse. Do you not feel a balance in them, as 
if you placed them on opposite sides of a scale ? 



FINDING ANTONYMS 



:8i 



IX. FINDING ANTONYMS 

a. Opposite each of the following common words 
write as many antonyms for it as you know ; for 
example, both sour and bitter are antonyms of 
sweet. 



sweet 


wisdom 


false 


friend 


high 


refuse 


fair 


came 


ask 


more 


night 


first 


old 


awake 


weep 


life 


hero 


cruel 


free 


obey 


silence 


find 


please 


rise 


warm 


awkward 


bring 


dull 


light 


hide 


poverty 


rich 


rare 


evil 


order 


love 


strong 


busy 


help 


open 



b. Make five sentences from your list of anto- 
nyms. Try to make worth-while sentences. The 
following will serve as models : 

He who killed a lion when absent, feared a mouse 
when present. — French 

Cowards are cruel, but the brave are merciful. 

— English 

Fools make feasts and wise men eat them. — French 

Small minds punish ; great minds forgive. — Arabian 

Better a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled 
ox and hatred therewith. — Bible 



182 



THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 



X. WORDS WHOSE SOUND SUGGESTS THEIR 
MEANING 

a. Read the following selection : 

Crickets in the clover 

Clattered clear and strong, 

And the bees droned over 
Their old honey song. 



Through the breezy mazes 

Of the lazy June, 
Drowsy with the hazes 

Of the dreamy noon. 

— Riley 

The noun cricket suggests by its sound the noise 
made by the insect. 

In the second line, what word suggests the 
harsh note of the cricket ? 

Does not the word droned in the third line 
suggest by its sound the sleepy, monotonous 
"buzz" of the bee? 

In the last four lines how many times does the 
z sound occur ? Read these lines aloud, prolong- 
ing the z sound whenever you pronounce a word 
containing it. Does not the frequent repetition 
and the prolonging of this sound suggest the 
buzzing, droning song of the bee ? 



MEANING SUGGESTED BY SOUND 183 



Words whose sound suggests the meaning help to make 
language forcible. 

Fortunately the English language abounds in 
such words. Below are a few of the most common. 
As you read them, connect with each the idea 
which it suggests : as, flash of lightning, roll of 
drums. 

scamper chuckle 

flash buzz 

boom whiz 

crunch whirl 

rumble hodge-podge 

bellow brittle 

snap hiss 

rip sizzle 

cackle soothe 
hocus-pocus squeal 

b. Many of the names given to cries or calls of 
animals suggest the actual sounds. With what 
do you immediately associate each of the fol- 
lowing ? 

Twit, quack, chirp, cluck, peep, mew, moo, baa, 
twitter, cackle, gobble, purr. 

c. Make a list of all the words you habitually 
associate with the following : 

The movement of water. Sounds of conflict. 

A lullaby. Fun. 

Sorrow or grief. Coasting on a bicycle. 

Canoeing. , Climbing a steep hill. 



roll 


roar 


whir 

thud 

ding-dong 

splash 

hubbub 


murmur 

rattle 

bang 

clatter 

tinkle 


crawl 


rush 


groan 

yell 

clank 


jogged 
whack, 
clang 



1 84 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

d. In the following quotations, which words 
suggest their sense through their sounds ? 

(i) All hopping through the frothy waves, 
And scrambling to the shore. 

— Lewis Carroll 

(2) A queer little figure bobbed up from the fireplace 
and hobbled to the door. 

(3) The wild cataract leaps in glory. 

— Tennyson 

(4) A foaming torrent came hissing and whizzing 
down the hillside. It rippled peacefully through the 
glen. 

(5) The roll of the drum and the blaring of the 
trumpet drowned his last words. 



XL STUDYING SELECTIONS FOR FITTING 
WORDS 

Below are some quotations from well-known 
authors. Read each carefully and try to decide 
what it is that makes it pleasing. Ask concern- 
ing each selection the following questions : 

Has the author used vivid descriptive words ? 

Has he used a variety of synonyms ? 

Has he emphasized his meaning by using con- 
trasts ? 

Has he used apt or beautiful comparisons ? 

Has he used words that suggest sense by sound ? 



STUDYING SELECTIONS FOR WORDS 185 

Has he arranged the words of his sentences so 
that they lead to a climax ? 

Has he emphasized by repeating words ? 

Has he used questions or exclamatory sen- 
tences ? 

Justify your answer to each question by giving 
all the illustrations you can from the quotations. 
For example, if you say that an author has used 
"vivid descriptive words," name all such words 
that you consider good. You will find that 
some of the quotations illustrate several ways in 
which an author can make his words most effective. 
In each quotation, find all the skillful use of lan- 
guage that you can. 

(a) It is a dreadful night. The passengers are 
clustered, trembling, below. Every plank shakes ; 
and the oak ribs groan as if they suffered with their 
toil. The ship is pitching madly, and the waves are 
toppling up sometimes as high as the yard-arm, and 
then dipping away with a whirl under our keel, that 
makes every timber in the vessel quiver. The thunder 
roars like a thousand cannon ; and at the moment the 
sky is cleft with a stream of fire that glares over the 
tops of the waves, and glistens on the wet deck and 
spars. 

The spray spits angrily against the canvas ; the 
waves crash against the weather-bow like mountains ; 
the wind howls through the rigging, or, as a gasket 
gives way, the sail, bellying to leaward, splits like the 
crack of a musket. I hear the captain in the lulls 



1 86 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

screaming out orders ; and the mate in the rigging 
screaming them over, until the lightning comes, and 
the thunder, deadening their voices as if they were 
chirping sparrows. 

— Donald Grant Mitchell 

In this quotation the author has used words to 
express strife, labor, danger, and action. The 
word lulls, suggesting temporary quietness, makes 
the whole selection wilder by contrast. 

(b) His words were shed softer than leaves from the 
pine. 

— Lowell 
Thy voice is like a fountain, 

Leaping up in clear moonshine, 
Silver, silver, ever mounting, 
Ever sinking 
Without thinking. 

— Lowell 

These two quotations refer to the human voice. 
One describes the voice of a person singing, the 
other that of a person speaking. Read the 
quotations again and determine which refers to 
the singer and which to the speaker. What kind 
of words were spoken — gentle or harsh, kind or 
unkind, comforting or bitter ? What kind of song 
do you think was sung ? 

(c) Priscilla, the Puritan maiden, 

Feeling his words like a blow, that stunned her 
and rendered her speechless. 

— Longfellow 



STUDYING SELECTIONS FOR WORDS 187 

(d) And the world threw off the darkness, like the 
weeds of widowhood. 

— Longfellow 
The black bat, night, has flown. 

— Tennyson 

Of what are both authors writing ? 

(<?) Rise up ! — for you the flag is flung — for you the 
bugle trills, 
For you bouquets and ribboned wreaths — for 

you the shores acrowding; 
For you the call, the swaying mass, their eager 
faces turning. 

— Walt Whitman 

(/) Rockaby, lullaby, dew on the clover! 

Dew on the eyes that will sparkle at dawn! 
Rockaby, lullaby, dear little rover! 
Into the stilly world, 
Into the lily world, 
Gone! oh gone! 
Into the lily world gone! 

What is the meaning in the second line ? 

Why is sleep called the "stilly world" ? The 
"lily world"? 

What line tells us the baby has finally gone to 
sleep ? 

(g) Flow gently, sweet Afton, among thy green braes ; 
Flow gently, I'll sing thee a song in thy praise; 
My Mary's asleep by thy murmuring stream, 
Flow gently, sweet Afton, disturb not her dream. 

— Burns 



188 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

The cataract strong 

Then plunges along, 

Striking and raging 

As if a war waging 

Its caverns and rocks among. 

SOUTHEY 

These two quotations refer to the flow of waters. 
Which picture suggests peace ? Which strife ? 

(h) We take care of our health, we lay up money ; 
we make our roof tight and our clothing sufficient ; 
but who provides wisely that we shall not be wanting 
in the best property of all, — friends ? 

— Emerson 



XII. STUDYING SELECTIONS FOR WORDS 
AROUSING FEELING 

Read each of the above quotations again and 
try to determine what feeling it arouses ; is it a 
feeling of sorrow, of gladness, of peace, of rest- 
lessness, of anger, of joy, of haste, of sympathy, 
of irritation, of pride, of fear, of hatred, of scorn, 
of love, of dread ? If it is none of these, how will 
you describe it ? Try to determine what words 
give the selection the feeling that it arouses. 

One who would use language effectively must think quite 
as much of the feelings that he would arouse as of the 
thoughts that he would convey. 



THINKING OF THE RIGHT WORD 189 

That you may be successful in selecting words, 
you must have a large number from which to 
choose ; that you may grow more successful in the 
selection and use of words, you must constantly 
increase your vocabulary. You can best do this 
by listening to the talk of educated people, by read- 
ing good literature, and by using a dictionary. 

Whenever you hear or see a word that is new to you, 
learn its meaning ; then use the word several times the very 
day you hear or see it. 

After this, the word will be your own — a valu- 
able possession that means a new idea and in- 
creased power with which to express thought or 
arouse feeling. 

XIII. THINKING OF THE RIGHT WORD 

Have you ever had the experience of "knowing 
what you want to say," but not being able to 
think of the word that you need to express your 
idea ? That is a common experience ; doubtless 
even the best writers have it at times. The way 
you treat that experience will determine your 
progress in acquiring a rich and usable vocabulary. 
If you are satisfied to do without the word you 
need, if you prefer to let your idea go unexpressed, 
or partly expressed, or incorrectly expressed, rather 
than make the effort necessary to find the right 



190 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

word, then your progress in acquiring a vocabulary 
will be slow, and your use of language will be 
meager and slovenly. But if you always seek 
until you find the word suitable for the expres- 
sion of your idea, then your vocabulary will 
grow rapidly and you will make steady progress 
in the accurate, forceful, and beautiful expression 
of thought. 

How can one find the needed word if it does 
not come into mind at once, of itself ? Some- 
times just thinking will bring the word. For 
example, suppose you wish to say : 

The dog growled as though he were going to bite. 

You want a single word to express the idea that 
is approximately expressed by the seven italicized 
words. You think of the words loudly, fiercely, 
savagely, hoarsely, furiously, terribly, boldly, and 
you reject each one as you find that it does not 
express your idea. Finally you think of the word 
threateningly and make the sentence : 

The dog growled threateningly. 

With this you are satisfied, for it expresses your 
thought exactly. 

How did you think of the word you needed ? 
Quite naturally ; you have often associated with 
the word growl the other words that came into 



THE GAME OF TRACKING WORDS 191 

your mind. Such words as lovingly, sweetly, 
gently, soothingly, timidly, kindly didn't come into 
your mind, because you are not in the habit of 
associating them with growling. You were able 
to think of the right word through what is called 
the association of ideas. 



XIV. THE GAME OF TRACKING WORDS 

You cannot, you must not, rely on thinking 
alone to bring you always the word you need. 
You may not have the right word in your vocabu- 
lary; in this case no amount of thinking will 
bring it to you ; you may not be able to recall 
the word when you need it, even though it is a 
word that you know. Under these circumstances 
you should consult a dictionary or a book of 
synonyms. Look up the word that seems to you 
to come nearest to the expression of your idea ; in 
defining that word, or in giving the synonyms of 
it, perhaps the very word you want has been 
used ; if not, select the word that seems to you 
nearest the one you seek, and look that up in the 
same way. 

For illustration, perhaps you have just com- 
pleted the description of a hard-fought game and 
wish to describe with a single word the manner 



192 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

in which the successful team marched down the 
street, — a manner which said to every one that 
they had beaten their rivals. 

They marched down the street. 

What word just fitting your idea shall go into the 
blank ? You can think only of beat, not much like 
the word you need, but you look it up in the dic- 
tionary, and among the definitions you find — 
"To win the victory." Victory suggests victorious 
and victoriously. You try this word — 

They marched victoriously down the street. 

That is almost, but not quite, the idea that you 
want to express ; victoriously does not fully ex- 
press the way the boys felt as shown by the 
manner of their walking. So you look up the ad- 
jective victorious, from which the adverb is formed 
by adding "ly," and find among its synonyms tri- 
umphant, which seems to fit your idea. You look 
up the word triumphant and find that it means 
"expressive of joy for success"; then you are 
sure it is just the word you have been seeking, 
that the adverb triumphantly expresses exactly the 
manner of the boys' marching : 

They marched triumphantly down the street. 

You may sometimes have to look up a half- 
dozen words before you find just the one you 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 193 

need. Indeed, you may finally fail after a dozen 
efforts ; even so, the acquaintance made with a 
score of words will richly repay your effort. But 
when you succeed — as you usually will — you 
will have the triumphant feeling of winning in a 
game, — the game of Tracking Words. 

XV. SOME COMMON SYNONYMS AND 
ANTONYMS 

a. The following list of some common syno- 
nyms and antonyms may be used for reference, 
when seeking words to fit your ideas exactly. 

b. Another way to use it is to memorize one of 
the groups each day, and seek occasions during the 
day to use the new words you have learned, so 
that they become a real addition to your vocabu- 
lary. 

c. Still another way to use the list is to play the 
following game. Let the teacher, a classmate, or 
some friend mention a word from the list. Then 
the other persons present try to give the synonyms 
or antonyms of that word, and the person who 
gives the most wins. 

d. Another way to use the list is to compose 
interesting sentences in which you use correctly 
certain words selected from the list. 



194 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

i 
Abandon, desert, forsake, forego, discard, relinquish, 
repudiate, waive, renounce, abdicate, leave. 
Retain, maintain, continue, cherish, keep. 

Which of the synonyms of abandon might be used 
in the following sentences ? If you are in doubt 
consult your dictionary. 

The king will the throne. By doing this he will 

all claim for himself, and all right to succes- 
sion for his son. 

2 
Able, competent, qualified, capable, talented, clever, 
gifted, efficient, effective, telling. 

Unable, incompetent, ineffective, incapable, dis- 
qualified, inefficient. 

3 
About, concerning, relative to, with regard to. 

4 

Abstain, forbear, refrain, withhold, deny one's self. 
Indulge. 

5_ 
Abundance, plenty, sufficiency, profusion, copious- 
ness, plenteousness, overflow. 
Deficiency, dearth, scarcity, poverty. 
Use antonyms of abundance in the following 
sentences : 

There was a of news. 

A of rain resulted in a poor harvest. 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 195 

6 
Accurate, correct, exact, just, true. 

Inaccurate, incorrect, unjust, erroneous, false. 

Supply a synonym and an antonym of accurate 
in each of the following sentences : 

John's examples were ; Tom's, . 

Walter's account of the game was ; Fred's, . 



7 
Act, performance, feat, exploit, achievement, deed, 
action; decree, edict, law, statute, enactment, 
ordinance. 

Which synonyms of act refer to lawmaking ? 
To what might the others refer ? 
8 
Active, brisk, nimble, agile, sprightly, spirited ; 
strenuous, diligent, enterprising. 
Inactive, passive. 

Which synonyms of active might refer to sport ? 
Which to work ? 

9 
Address, discourse, speech, lecture, oration ; direc- 
tion, superscription. 

Which synonyms of address refer to public 
speaking ? To what may others refer ? 
10 
Adorn, decorate, beautify, embellish, deck, orna- 
ment, grace, garnish. 
Disfigure, mar, deform. 



196 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

ii 

Adversary, enemy, foe, antagonist, opponent. 
Afraid, alarmed, fearful, timid, timorous, apprehen- 
sive, scared, diffident. 
Fearless, unafraid, intrepid, bold, undaunted. 

Which synonyms of afraid denote greater degrees 
of fear ? Which antonyms lesser ? 

12 
Agreeable, pleasant, gratifying, pleasurable, enjoy- 
able, congenial ; suitable, benefiting. 
Disagreeable, unpleasant, uncongenial, contrary. 

Aid, assist, succor, cooperate, befriend, help. 

14 

Aim, object, purpose, design, end, goal. 

15 

Also, besides, too, further, in addition, furthermore, 
moreover. 

16 
Always, perpetually, continually, forever, everlast- 
ingly, evermore, unceasingly ; invariably, con- 
stantly, uniformly. 
Occasionally, sometimes. 

17 
Anger, fury, indignation, rage, wrath, ire, resent- 
ment, passion, displeasure, vexation, frenzy, 
temper. 

18 
Astonishment, amazement, surprise, wonder. 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 197 

19 

Awful, appalling, terrible, dreadful, frightful, grue- 
some, horrible, shocking; awe-inspiring, majestic. 

20 
Awkward, clumsy, ungraceful, gawky, inelegant, un- 
gainly, loutish, unskillful, unwieldy. 
Graceful, dexterous, elegant, clever. 

21 

Beautiful, fair, handsome, lovely, comely, beauteous, 
elegant, exquisite. 
Homely, ugly, repulsive, unlovely, hideous. 

22 
Bit, morsel, fragment, scrap, crumb ; mite, particle, 
iota, atom, speck, mote. 

Awful, awkward, badly, bear, beautiful, and bit 
are much overworked words. Study and learn to 
use their synonyms correctly. 

23 
Blow, whack, knock, thwack, rap, thump, assault, 
stroke. 

Which of the synonyms of blow would you use 
in relating an adventure with a mouse ? A serious 

encounter ? 

24 
Brave, intrepid, courageous, valiant, daring, bold, 
valorous, chivalrous, fearless, adventurous, 
dauntless, doughty, gallant, heroic, mettlesome, 
undaunted, venturesome, lion-hearted, manly, 
unafraid, plucky. 

Cowardly, craven, timorous, recreant. 



198 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Which of the synonyms of brave would you use 
in speaking of a soldier ? an explorer ? a boy 
leader ? 

What noun or nouns do you associate with the 
antonyms of brave ? 

25 
Bright, luminous, gleaming, lustrous, radiant, re- 
splendent, glistening, beaming, shimmering, 
dazzling, glowing, glittering, flashing, sparkling, 
brilliant, glossy, glaring, vivid, intelligent. 
Dull, dim, dingy, tarnished. 

Which of the synonyms of bright may be applied 
to a lamp ? the sun ? a diamond ? snow ? 

What noun or nouns do you associate with the 
antonyms of bright? 

26 

Burn, scorch ; scald, singe, char, sear, brand. 

27 
Careful, cautious, watchful, provident, attentive, 
considerate, heedful, prudent, discreet, wary, 
mindful, choice, sparing, observant. 
Careless, negligent, unconcerned, indifferent, heed- 
less, incautious, inattentive, regardless, lax, un- 
wary, reckless, slovenly, remiss. 

Substitute at least two synonyms for careful in 
each of the following sentences : 

Pupils should be careful in all school work. 
The scout was the most careful man in the army. 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 199 

Which of the antonyms of careful might be used 
in referring to a pupil ? a poor scout ? 

28 
Catch, seize, grasp, clutch, snatch ; arrest ; over- 
take ; insnare, entangle, entrap. 

Use an appropriate synonym for catch in the 
following : 

a rope. a rabbit. 

a hand. a runner. 

a thief. an apple from a basket. 

29 
Celebrated, famous, famed, illustrious, noted, re- 
nowned, eminent, far-famed. 
Obscure, inglorious, unrenowned. 

30 
Champion, defender, protector ; winner, hero, con- 
queror. 

31 
Charming, bewitching, captivating, enchanting, en- 
trancing, magical, fascinating, winning, delight- 
ful, winsome. 

Which of the synonyms of charming would you 
not use in describing a person ? 

32 
Cheerful, cheery, pleasant, sunny, blithe, jovial. 

33 
Clothes, dress, clothing, garments, vesture, attire, ap- 
parel, costume, raiment, garb, vestment, regalia, 
uniform, livery, guise, wardrobe, regimentals. 



200 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

With what sort of person, or with what occasion, 
do you associate each of the following synonyms 
of clothes : raiment, garb, vestment, costume, re- 
galia, uniform, livery ? 

34 

Crowd, multitude, number, mass, throng, horde, 
host, troop, bevy, knot, assembly ; rabble, mob. 

Which synonym of crowd do you associate with 
ruffians ? savages ? girls ? the army ? passers on 
the street ? lawmakers ? 

35 

Cruel, pitiless, merciless, inhuman, brutal. 

36 
Cut, gash, slash, hew, crop, reap, mow, lop (off), 
prune, clip, shear, whittle, shave, train, dock, 
amputate, carve, lance, cleave, slit. 

After each synonym of cut write the name of 
the instrument with which the action is usually 
performed. 

37 
Danger, jeopardy, hazard, peril, risk, insecurity, 
exposure. 
Safety, security, shelter, safeguard, protection. 

38 
Defend, guard, protect, shield, secure, screen, shelter, 
fortify, garrison, preserve, harbor ; uphold, vin- 
dicate, justify, maintain. 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 201 

Which of the synonyms of defend may be used 
in referring to the care of a person ? Which to 
the defense of a cause ? To what might the 
others refer ? 

39 
Discourteous, uncivil, rude, disrespectful, abrupt, 
unmannerly, boorish. 
40 
Draw, haul, drag, tug, tow ; attract ; extract ; 
unsheath. 

Which synonyms of draw should be used before 

each of the following : a tooth ; a net ; 

attention ; a sword ; wood ; a 

boat. 

4i 

Fast, immovable, firm, rigid ; strong, invincible, 
fortified ; steadfast, faithful, true ; permanent, 
durable; rapid, swift, fleet, quick, speedy. 

Which of the synonyms of fast has the officer in 
mind when he tells his men to "stand fast"? 
Which has the merchant in mind when he speaks 
of "fast color"? Which, the boy who is told 

"to run fast" ? 

42 
Funny, comic, amusing, comical, droll, laughable, 
witty, jocular, ludicrous, absurd, waggish, humor- 
ous, jesting. 

43 
Game, play, amusement, pastime, diversion, fun, 
sport; contest; prey; quarry. 



202 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

What synonym of game has a hunter in mind ? 
a child ? a ball player ? 

44 

Group, gang, band, crew, company, crowd, set, 
squad, party, number. 

Did you ever hear any one use bunch as a 
synonym of group ? It is not ; do not so use it. 

45 

Glad, pleased, delighted, happy, joyous, joyful, 
rejoiced, merry, cheery, gladsome. 
Sad, sorrowful, unhappy, depressed, gloomy. 

4 6 

Great, enormous, immense, gigantic ; numerous, 
countless ; superior, excellent, admirable ; emi- 
nent, famous, distinguished, famed, noted. 

Read carefully the synonyms of great, then 
answer these questions : Do you ever use great 
incorrectly ? How ? What words would be better 
for your use ? 

47 

Hesitate, doubt, falter, waver, deliberate. 

48 
Honest, honorable, upright, sincere ; incorruptible. 

49 
Horrible, dreadful, terrible, hideous, shocking, grim, 
ghastly, appalling, dire, gruesome, awful. 

50 
Hum, drone, murmur, buzz ; croon. 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 203 

5i 
House, dwelling, residence, domicile, abode, habita- 
tion; mansion, palace; tenement; villa, manse, 
lodge ; home. 

52 
Industrious, diligent, persistent, hard-working. 

Idle, indolent, inactive, lazy. 

53 
Just, upright, honest, conscientious, honorable, 
straightforward ; merited, deserved ; fair, im- 
partial, unbiased ; correct, exact, proper, appro- 
priate. 

54 
Notice, see, observe, note, heed, recognize, perceive, 
mark, pay attention to. 
Neglect, overlook, disregard, slight. 

55 
Noise, sound, racket, clamor, din, outcry, clatter, 
uproar, hubbub, tumult, rout, blare, hilarity. 

56 
Odd, unmatched, single, uneven ; singular, pecul- 
iar, unusual, unique, strange, quaint, extraordi- 
nary, queer, freakish, fantastic, curious ; extra, 
remaining, additional. 

57 
People, inhabitants, population, citizens ; relatives, 
relations, kindred. 

58 
Prevent, thwart, hinder, obstruct, forestall, intercept, 
avert, parry, deter, frustrate. 



2o 4 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

59 
Put back, replace, restore, reinstate. 

Put out, eject, oust," remove, evict, dislodge. 

60 
Quiet, calm, still, pacific, motionless, unmoved, 
stagnant, placid, serene, undisturbed, unruffled ; 
hushed, silent, still, noiseless, inaudible; demure, 
meek, inoffensive, gentle, retiring, modest, un- 
assuming, undemonstrative, staid, reserved, 
sedate ; sequestered, unfrequented, retired, se- 
cluded. 

Which synonyms of quiet could you use in 
describing a person ? a body of water ? a place ? 
silence ? 

61 
Red, carmine, crimson, scarlet, cerise, garnet, ver- 
milion. 

By using the synonyms of red, a more exact 
description may be given. Why ? 

62 
Rest, stop, halt, pause, desist ; repose, recline, lie ; 
trust, rely, depend. 

Use synonyms of rest in the following sentences : 

A hammock invites one to . 

The soldiers were ordered to . 

You can on his promise. 



SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 205 

63 
Run, sprint, lope, scamper, scud, speed, hie, hasten, 
scour, flee, race, pace, gallop, trot ; proceed, 
flow ; melt, fuse ; pursue, follow ; stampede. 

64 
Search, examine, explore, hunt, seek, overhaul ; 
rummage, ransack. 

. 6 5 
Surprise, amaze, astonish, astound. 

66 
Ugly, repulsive, unsightly, loathsome, hideous, grue- 
some, frightful. 

Upset, overturn, overset, capsize, invert, overthrow. 

68 
Valley, vale, hollow, dale, ravine, dingle, glen, dell. 

69 

Very, exceedingly, highly, greatly, extremely, ex- 
cessively, surpassingly. 

70 
View, scene, landscape, vista, panorama, prospect, 
scenery. 

71 

Walk, stroll, promenade, tramp, stride, plod, trudge, 
tread, pace, march, shamble, stalk, strut, step, 
toddle, waddle, shuffle, saunter, slouch. 

Which synonyms of walk suggest a slow walk ? 
a quick walk ? a proud walk ? an uncertain walk ? 
a determined walk ? 



CHAPTER EIGHT 

VERBS 
I. VERB PHRASES 

The following poem was written just after the 
author had visited a great military training camp, 
and seen thousands of young soldiers drilling for 
national service. It has been learned by heart in 
many American schools, and recited or sung in 
many different countries. 

As you read the poem, emphasize slightly the 
words which are underlined. 

Battle Hymn of the Republic 

Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord : 
He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of 

wrath are stored ; 
He hath loosed the fateful lightning of his terrible swift 

sword ; 

His truth is marching on. 

I have seen him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling 

camps ; 
They have builded him an altar in the evening dews 

and damps ; 

206 



VERB PHRASES 207 

I can read his righteous sentence by the dim and 
flaring lamps. 

His day is marching on. 

I have read a fiery gospel, writ in burnished rows of 

steel : 
"As ye deal with my contemners, so with you my grace 

shall deal ; 
Let the Hero, born of woman, crush the serpent with 

his heel, 

Since God is marching on." 

He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call 

retreat ; 
He is sifting out the hearts of men before his judgment 

seat : 
Oh ! be swift, my soul, to answer him ! be jubilant, my 

feet! 

Our God is marching on. 

In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the 

sea, 
With a glory in his bosom that transfigures you and me : 
As he died to make men holy, let us die to make men 
free, 

While God is marching on. 

Julia Ward Howe 

In nearly every sentence or clause in the "Battle 
Hymn of the Republic," the assertion is made by 
two words taken together and used as a single verb. 



208 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

The only exceptions are "deal," "be," "transfig- 
ures," and "died." 

A group of two or more words used together as a single 
verb is called a Verb Phrase. 

The two words in the verb phrases let crush 
(stanza 3), shall call (stanza 4), and let die (stanza 5) 
are separated by other words ; nevertheless they 
must be taken together as they form a single verb 
phrase. 

Other examples of verb phrases are : 

The clock is striking. Has the school bell rung? 
It has not rung yet; but it will ring in a moment. I 
have been listening for it. 

a. In the sentence, 

He might have been doing something useful, 

"might have been doing" is a verb phrase, 
because it is a group of words used like a single 
verb to make one assertion. 

Study in the same way the verb phrases in the 
following sentences : 

(1) I am writing a letter to my best friend. 

(2) In five minutes I shall have finished it. 

(3) Mother has been writing letters for an hour. 

(4) I do not write every day. 

(5) My friend may be writing to me at the same 
time; if so, her letter will come to-morrow. 



VERB PHRASES 209 

b. Fill the blanks in the following sentences 
with appropriate verb phrases : 

(1) The game by our team. 

(2) Gold in Alaska. 

(3) The September sun the grapes. 

(4) A ragged boy in the street. 

(5) Beautiful flowers in the garden. 

c. Make a list of the verbs and verb phrases 
in the following selection: 

The Star-Spangled Banner 

O say, can you see, by the dawn's early light, 

What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last 
gleaming ? 
Whose broad stripes and bright stars, through the 
perilous fight, 
O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly 
streaming ! 
And the rocket's red glare, the bombs bursting in air, 
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still 

there ; 
O say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave 
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave ? 

O thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand 

Between their loved homes and the war's desolation ! 
Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the heav'n-rescued 
land 
Praise the power that has made and preserved us 
a nation. 



210 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Then conquer we must when our cause it is just, 
And this be our motto, "In God is our trust — " 
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave 
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave. 

— Francis Scott Key 

II. TRANSITIVE VERBS. DIRECT OBJECTS 

Read the following lines, emphasizing the under- 
lined words : 

Rats! 
They fought the dogs and killed the cats, 

And bit the babies in the cradles, 
And ate the cheese out of the vats, 

And licked the soup from the cooks' own ladles. 
Here are five verbs that tell what the rats did : 
they "fought," "killed," "bit," "ate," "licked;" 
and each verb is followed by a word that tells 
what they did it to. The rats fought dogs, 
killed cats, bit babies, ate cheese, licked soup. The 
doer of the actions is the subject, "they." But 
each of these actions involves two things, the doer 
and the receiver ; the action passes over from a 
doer to a receiver. 

A verb that denotes an action that passes over from a doer 
to a receiver is called a Transitive Verb. 

"Transitive" comes from the Latin transire, 
"to pass over." 



TRANSITIVE VERBS 211 

A word used to denote the receiver of an action per- 
formed by the subject is called a Direct Object. 

In the sentence, "They fought dogs," dogs is 
the direct object of the transitive verb fought. 
In the sentence, "The rats ate the cheese," cheese 
is the direct object of ate. 

The direct object of a verb is so called because 
it denotes the object directly affected by the ac- 
tion, or produced by it. It refers to a different 
person or thing from the subject, except in such 
sentences as " I hurt myself." Other examples are : 
Subject Transitive Verb Direct Object 

Lochinvar swam the river 

He had a broad szvord 

The "action" expressed by transitive verbs 
differs greatly in different verbs. "Swam" as- 
serts physical action; "loves" expresses mental 
action or feeling. "Have," "own," "possess," 
"inherit," "owe," "need," and many others, ex- 
press "action" only in a vague and general sense. 
Such verbs are nevertheless called transitive, be- 
cause they involve two persons or things, one 
denoted by the subject, the other by a direct 
object. Sometimes the direct object tells what 
is produced by the action expressed by the verb : 
as, "The Romans built ships." Sometimes the 



212 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

direct object denotes only the second person or 
thing implied in the so-called "action" of the 
verb : as, "I saw the procession." 

The direct object of a verb may have modifiers, 
and it may also be compound : as, 

I met Ethel and Carrie. 
They invited you and me for tea. 
The people gave gold, silver, jewelry, precious stones, 
silks, and rich velvets for their king's ransom. 

He finds his house in ruins, his farm devastated, his 
slaves free, his stock killed, his barns empty, his trade 
destroyed, his money worthless, his social system 
swept away, his people without law or legal status, his 
comrades slain, and the burdens of others heavy on 
his shoulders. 

What are the direct objects in the last two 
sentences ? 

III. STUDYING SENTENCES FOR DIRECT 
OBJECTS 

What is the direct object in the following 
sentence ? 

To blow the pipe his lips he wrinkled. 

This sentence is in inverted order. The natural 
order would be, 

He wrinkled his lips to blow the pipe. 



SENTENCES FOR DIRECT OBJECTS 213 

The verb is "wrinkled," which is transitive be- 
cause it denotes an action passing from a doer, 
"he," to a receiver, "lips." "Lips" is the di- 
rect object of "wrinkled," because it denotes the 
receiver of the action performed by the subject. 
"Pipe" is the direct object of "to blow." 

Notice that the direct object may come before 
its verb. 

a. Make complete sentences of the following by 
adding direct objects accompanied by modifiers. 
Point out the word that is the direct object in 
each sentence which you make : 

(1) I spent 

(2) Longfellow wrote 

(3) The mother baked 

(4) The rising tide hid the 

(5) Please lend me your 

(6) The gardener dug a long 

(7) The cat has killed a 

(8) Last night I heard 

(9) Our country needs 
(10) I have never owned a 

b. Make interesting sentences in which you use 
the following words as direct objects of transitive 
verbs : 

game room automobile him them 
lesson hat photograph her us 



214 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

c. Make sentences with the following subjects, 
adding to each an appropriate predicate consisting 
of a transitive verb and a direct object. Make 
your sentences interesting by using well-chosen 
modifiers : 

squirrel groves farms clouds war 

d. Point out the direct objects in the following 
sentences : 

(i) Courtesy opens many doors. 

(2) That gale I well remember. 

(3) Wherefore stopp'st thou me ? 

(4) Ten spears he swept within his grasp. 

(5) My good blade carves the casques of men. 

(6) With his knife the tree he girdled. 

(7) Have you ever seen him and Fred together ? 

(8) Take the helm, lead the line, save the squadron ! 
cried its chief. 

(9) Me he restored unto mine office, and him he 
hanged. 

(10) The pavement damp and cold 
No smiling courtiers tread. 

IV. USING PRONOUNS AS DIRECT OBJECTS 

The nominative case, you remember, should 
be chosen when a pronoun is used as a subject 
substantive. 

When a pronoun is used as a Direct Object, good writers 
and speakers always use the Objective Case. 



PRONOUNS AS DIRECT OBJECTS 215 

The following sentences are correct, because 
the pronoun in italic is a direct object of the verb : 

Barbara saw brother and me yesterday. 

She invited us to tea. 

We brought her and Alice home with us for supper. 

Whom did you meet ? 

No one would say, "Barbara saw /"; therefore 
no one should say, "Barbara saw brother and /." 

No one would say, " Did you meet she ? " 
Therefore no one should say, " Who did you 
meet ? " 

a. Which case of the pronoun should be used 
in the following sentences ? Explain the reason : 

(1) Jessie met Staunton and (I, me) down town. 

(2) She invited you and (I, me) to go motoring 
with her. 

(3) Yes, you and (I, me) were both invited. 

(4) I told her you and (I, me) could be ready by 
ten o'clock. 

(5) Father says he will join mother and (we, us) at 
the store. 

(6) Then he will drive (we, us) through the park. 

(7) (We us) boys are having a fine time. 

(8) Yesterday I saw John and (he, him) together. 

(9) (Who, whom) can I trust, if not (he, him) ? 

(10) When will you and (he, him) come again ? 

(11) (They, them) who talk must stay after school. 

(12) (They,- them) who talk I will keep after school. 

(13) (Who, whom) do you mean ? 

(14) (Who, whom) have we here ? 



216 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(15) (Who, whom) called to see you ? 

(16) (Who, whom) will you take with you ? 

(17) Elect (whoever, whomever) you wish. 

(18) (Whoever, whomever) did it ought to be 
ashamed of himself. 

V. INDIRECT OBJECTS 

The second of the following sentences you per- 
haps recognize as from Browning's "An Incident 
of the French Camp" : 

(1) We've got Ratisbon. 

(2) We've got you Ratisbon. 

"Ratisbon" is the direct object of "have got." 
"You," referring to Napoleon, denotes the person 
for whom the action was performed. 

A word used to denote the person or thing to or for whom 
something is done is called an Indirect Object. 

Other examples of indirect objects are : 

Rouse up, sirs ! Give your brains a racking. 
Captains, give the sailor place ! 
You have saved the King his ships. 

Mention the direct objects in these sentences. 
Read the sentences, omitting the indirect objects 
and their modifiers. 

If we change the position of the indirect objects 
in such sentences, we must use "to" or "for": 
as. 



INDIRECT OBJECTS 217 

We've got Ratisbon for you. 
Give a racking to your brains. 

In these sentences, "you" and "brains" are no 
longer indirect objects, but substantives with 
prepositions. 

a. Introduce an indirect object into each of the 
following sentences. If you wish to be sure that 
a word is an indirect object, test it by seeing 
whether you might use to or for before it without 
changing the sense : 

(1) Mother bought a new hat. 

(2) She made a new dress. 

(3) She showed a large doll. 

(4) We brought some lilies from the pond. 

(5) Father gave an interesting account of his trip. 

b. Point out first the direct object and then the 
indirect object in each of the following sentences : 

(1) Owe no man anything. 

(2) Will you do me a favor ? 

(3) Give me liberty, or give me death. 

(4) Riches certainly make themselves wings. 

(5) Build thee more stately mansions, my soul. 

(6) We owe the Pilgrim fathers a great debt. 

(7) I bring you good tidings of great joy. 

(8) Give us this day our daily bread. 

(9) Bring me my arms and coat of mail ; 
Fetch me my standard bright. 

(10) The day returns and brings us the petty round of 
irritating concerns and duties. Help us to play the 



218 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

man, let cheerfulness abound with industry. Give us 
to go blithely on our business all this day, bring us to 
our resting beds weary and content and undishonored, 
and grant us in the end the gift of sleep. 

— Robert Louis Stevenson 



VI. USING PRONOUNS AS INDIRECT 
OBJECTS 

The objective case, you have learned, should be 
chosen when a pronoun is used as a direct object. 

The Objective Case should always be used when the 
pronoun is an Indirect Object. 

The following sentences are correct, because 
in each the pronoun in italic is an indirect object 
of the verb : 

Lend him a hand. 

Give me liberty, or give me death. 

Bring mother and us some chocolates. 

You would never think of saying, "Bring we 
some chocolates." Hence you should never say, 
"Bring mother and we some chocolates." 

a. Which case of the pronoun should be used 
in the following sentences ? Explain the reason : 

(i) Please read (we, us) children a poem. 
(2) Mother tells Blanche and (me, I) stories. 



INTRANSITIVE VERBS 219 

(3) Father brought both (she, her) and (I, me) 
presents. 

(4) The government has granted Uncle Charles and 
(he, him) a pension. 

(5) The guide showed Mr. J. and (me, I) how to 
paddle. 

(6) (Him, he) and (me, I) were clumsy at first. 

(7) Aunt Jessie gave Staunton and (I, me) a collie. 

(8) Brother has made himself and (us, we) a sled. 

(9) Will you do (he, him) and (I, me) a favor ? 
(10) (Him, he) and (me, I) feel very grateful to you. 

VII. INTRANSITIVE VERBS 

Read the following lines, noting the verbs : 
Sir Galahad 

My good blade carves the casques of men, 

My tough lance thrusteth sure, 
My strength is as the strength of ten, 

Because my heart is pure. 
The shattering trumpet shrilleth high, 

The hard brands shiver on the steel, 
The splintered spear-shafts crack and fly. 

The horse and rider reel. 
They reel, they roll in clanging lists, 

And when the tide of combat stands, 
Perfume and flowers fall in showers, 

That lightly rain from ladies' hands. 

What is the meaning of "casques," "brands," 
and "lists"? 



220 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Here are fourteen verbs, and only one of them 
is a transitive verb. Which one is it ? How- 
can you tell ? What is its direct object ? 

No other verb in this selection denotes an 
action that passes over from the doer to a re- 
ceiver. For example, the brands "shiver," the 
spear shafts "crack," the horses "reel" and "roll," 
the flowers "fall" ; but they don't do these things 
to any person or thing. Each of these actions in- 
volves only the subject. There is no receiver of 
the action. 

"Sure" and "high," which look like direct 
objects because each follows a verb, are adverbs 
modifying verbs. "Pure," which follows "is," is 
an adjective modifying "heart." 

A verb that denotes an action that does not pass oyer 
from a doer to a receiver is called an Intransitive Verb. 

Other examples of Intransitive verbs are : 

Into the street the Piper stept. 

Green and blue his sharp eyes twinkled. 

Some verbs are at one time transitive, at another 
intransitive : as, 

Transitive : He is flying a kite. 

Intransitive : A crow is flying over the meadow. 

a. Tell whether the verbs in the following 
sentences are transitive or intransitive and give 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 221 

the reason. Point out the direct objects : 

(1) The rainbow comes and goes, 
And lovely is the rose. 

(2) Righteousness exalteth a nation. 

(3) She wore a rose in her hair. 

(4) The dull day wore slowly on. 

(5) From street to street he piped advancing, 
And step for step they followed dancing, 
Until they came to the river Weser, 
Wherein all plunged and perished ! 

(6) Once more he stept into the street, 

And to his lips again 
Laid his long pipe of smooth straight cane. 

(7) Out came the children running. 

(8) Lo, as they reached the mountain side 
A wondrous portal opened wide. 

(9) The Piper advanced and the children followed, 
And when all were in to the very last 

The door in the mountain side shut fast. 

b. Compose interesting sentences of your own, 
using each of the following verbs first transitively, 
then intransitively, 
read sing ran play return 

VIII. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE 
VERBS OFTEN CONFOUNDED 

1. Lie, Lay 

Lie means " recline "; has lain means "has 
reclined." Lie and lain are always intransitive, 
and take no direct object. Thus, 



222 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

I often lie on the grass. 

I have lain under that tree many times. 

Lay, referring to past time, means "reclined"; 
it is intransitive, with no direct object. Thus, 

Yesterday the book lay on the table. 
The snow lay on the ground. 

Lay, referring to present time, means "cause to 
lie"; it is transitive, and requires a direct object. 
Thus, 

Birds lay eggs. 

Please lay the book on the table. 

Laid means "caused to lie," and is always 
transitive, requiring a direct object. Thus, 

Yesterday's shower laid the dust. 
She has laid her hat on the sofa. 

It is right to say, 

The book lies on the table. 
The book lay on the table. 
The book has lain on the table. 
Lay the book down. 
She laid the book down. 
She had laid the book down. 

It is wrong to say, 

The snow laid on the ground, 

because "laid" means "caused to lie," and is 

always transitive. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 223 

It is wrong to say, 

I like to lay on the grass, 

I have laid under that tree many times, 

because "lay," present, means "cause to lie," 
and "have laid" means "have caused to lie." 

a. Which of the verb forms in parentheses 
should be used in the following sentences ? Tell 
the reason in each case : 

(1) Your hat is (laying, lying) on the floor. 

(2) Father is (laying, lying) a concrete pavement. 

(3) Texas (lays, lies) south of Oklahoma. 

(4) (Lay, lie) still until I return. 

(5) (Lay, lie) aside your work. Let it (lay, lie) there. 

(6) The broken car (lay, laid) in a ditch. 

(7) It had (laid, lain) there three hours. 

(8) You had better (lay, lie) down for a while. 

(9) You had better (lay, lie) your bundle down. 

(10) Father told me to (lay, lie) down, and I (lay, lie) 
down as he ordered. 

(11) This carpet does not (lay, lie) smoothly. 

(12) I was so tired I (lay, laid) down in my wet 
clothes. 

b. Use each of these forms — lie, lay (past), lain, 
lay (present), laid, has laid — in sentences of your 
own. 

2. Rise, Raise 

Rise, rose, and risen are always intransitive. 
Thus, 



224 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

I rise with the sun. 

The sun rose at five o'clock. 

Sleepy-head has not risen yet. 

Raise means "cause to rise," and is always 
transitive, requiring a direct object. Thus, 

Raise your hand before you speak. 
She raised her hand to ask a question. 

It is wrong to say, 

My bread will not raise; 

The injured player raised up and looked around ; 

because "raise" means "cause to rise," and is 
always transitive. 

a. Which of the verb-forms in parentheses 
should be used in the following sentences ? Tell 
the reason : 

(i) (Raise, rise) up and help me. 

(2) The price of corn has (raised, risen). 

(3) She cannot get her rolls to (raise, rise). 

(4) The sick man (raised, rose) up at the sound. 

(5) He (raised, rose) himself, without any help. 

b. Use rise, rose, risen, raise, raised, and has 
raised in sentences of your own. 

3. Sit, Set 

Sit and sat are always intransitive. Thus, 

He said, "Let us sit down ; " so we sat on the piazza, 
where we had often sat before. 



TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 225 

Set usually means "cause to sit" and in that 
meaning is always transitive. Thus, 

She set the lamp on the table, where she previously 
had set her workbasket. 

Set is used as an intransitive verb in the sen- 
tence, " The sun sets early now ; it set to-day at five 
o'clock." 

It is wrong to say, 

He is setting near the door, 
because "setting" means "causing to sit," which 
is not here intended. The intransitive verb, 
"is sitting," should be used. 

a. Which of the verb-forms in parentheses 
should be used in the following sentences ? Tell 
the reason in each case. 

(1) (Set, sit) here beside me. Please (sit, set) down. 

(2) (Sit, set) your satchel on that chair. 

(3) Nurses often have to (set, sit) up all night. 

(4) Where do you (set, sit) in school ? 

(5) Have you (sat, set) in that seat long ? 

(6) We (sat, set) round the fire telling stories. 

(7) He (sat, set) the basket on a rock. 

(8) May I (set, sit) these flowers on the table and 
then (set, sit) by you ? 

(9) The baby was (setting, sitting) on the floor (set- 
ting, sitting) up blocks. 

(10) You (sit, set) here, Lida ; let Corwin (set, sit) 
in front. 



226 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

b. Use sit, sat, sets, is sitting, set, has sat and has 
set in interesting sentences of your own. 

IX. LINKING VERBS 

You have learned that it is right to say, "Who 
saw them ?" because the direct object of a transi- 
tive verb should be in the objective case. It 
is wrong to say, "Who are them?" What 
is the difference ? And why are the first of the 
following sentences right, the others wrong ? 

Right : She sews neatly. Wrong : She sews neat. 
Right : She looks neat. Wrong : She looks neatly. 

Before you can answer these very important 
practical questions, you must learn what is meant 
by linking verbs and predicate words. 

Notice the verbs in the following sentences : 

The wind rose. 
The lightning flashed. 
The thunder rolled. 
The rain fell. 

In each of these sentences the verb, which is 
intransitive, itself forms a complete predicate. 

A verb that of itself can form a complete predicate is 
called a Complete Verb. 

Now let us try to form predicates with the 
verbs "is," "was," "became," and "seemed": 



LINKING VERBS 227 

To-day is 
The night was 
The air became 
The city seemed 

You see at once that something is lacking. 
These verbs do not of themselves form complete 
predicates. Neither do they require direct ob- 
jects, for they do not denote action passing over 
from a doer to a receiver. We must add to each 
verb a word which describes or explains the subject, 

as follows : 

To-day is Monday. 
The night was dark. 
The air became cold. 
The city seemed asleep. 

In each of these sentences the verb serves as a 
link, coupling together the subject and a predicate 
word which describes or explains the subject. 

A verb that couples together the subject and a word 
which describes or explains the subject is called a Linking 
Verb. 

The most common linking verbs are is (am, was, 
have been, etc.), become, and seem. Other verbs 
often (but not always) used as linking verbs are 
appear, feel, grow, look, remain, smell, and taste. 

Linking verbs and transitive verbs are alike 
in this : they cannot form complete predicates of 
themselves. They differ in this : a transitive 



228 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

verb requires a direct object, which usually de- 
notes a different person or thing from the subject ; 
a linking verb is followed by a word which de- 
scribes or explains the subject. 

a. Which of the following verbs are linking 
verbs, and which are transitive ? Tell how you 
know: 

(i) I feel cold. 

(2) I feel a draft. 

(3) Clover smells sweet. 

(4) I smell burnt paper. 

(5) Red Riding Hood tasted the broth. 

(6) It tasted good. 

(7) Ethel is growing tall. 

(8) The boy volunteers are growing corn. 

(9) The weather continues wet. 
(10) His voice sounded stern. 

b. Make ten sentences of your own using each 
of the following verbs first as a transitive verb, 
then as a linking verb : 

feel taste smell grow turn 

c. Make eight sentences of your own using 
each of the following verbs first as a complete 
verb, then as a linking verb : 

appear grow look remain 

d. Complete the following sentences and tell 
whether the verbs are transitive verbs or linking 
verbs, and explain how you know : 



PREDICATE NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 229 



(1) Squirrels crack 

(2) Grocers sell — 
(3) 

(4) 
(5) 
(6) 



(12) The music sounded 



Lincoln became . (13) The story seemed 

Lee was . — . 

Charles saw . 

Columbus discovered 



(14) The child broke 



(7) Farmers raise . 

(8) The sky is . 

(9) The air grew . 

(10) The room looks . 

(11) The grapes tasted 



(15) The water feels . 

(16) I shall be . 

(17) He is a bold . 

(18) She was a brave 

young . 

(19) Who saw ? 

(20) Who are ? 



X. PREDICATE NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 

What part of speech is the word used in the 
predicate of the following sentences to describe 
or explain the subject ? 

My uncle is a major. 
That tall man is he. 

In the first of these sentences, the noun "major" 
is linked to the subject by the verb "is," to de- 
scribe the subject. In the second sentence the 
pronoun "he" is linked to the subject by the verb 



A norm or pronoun that completes the predicate and de- 
scribes or explains the subject is called a Predicate Noun 
or Pronoun. 



2 3 o THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

When a pronoun is used as a Predicate Pronoun, it should 
be in the Nominative Case. 

The reason for this rule is that a word should, 
of course, be in the same case as the word with 
which it is coupled. Hence good speakers and 

writers say : 

Who are thev ? 
It is I. 
It was he. 
That is she. 

a. In the following sentences, are the italicized 
words direct objects or predicate nouns ? Tell 
how you know : 

(i) The ambitious boy saw the president. 

(2) The ambitious boy became the president. 

(3) The sergeant remained a prisoner. 

(4) The sergeant took a prisoner. 

(5) Arnold turned traitor. 

(6) She turned her back. 

(7) The new clerk proved a prize. 

(8) The new clerk won a prize. 

(9) He came a joe and returned a friend. 
(10) She looked a duchess. 

b. Which case of the pronoun should be used 
in the following sentences ? Tell the reason : 

(1) Who is it? It is (I, me). It is (us, we). It 
is (him, he). It is (they, them). That is (her, she). 
Who saw (they, them) ? 



PREDICATE NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 231 

(2) It isn't (me, I). You surely know (me, I). 
Isn't it (he, him) ? Isn't it (she, her) ? 

(3) Who was it? Was it (I, me)? Please don't 
blame (I, me). Was it (he, him) ? Was it (her, she) ? 
Was it (them, they) ? 

(4) Wasn't it (I, me) ? Wasn't it (he, him) ? I 
surely saw (he, him). Wasn't it (she, her) ? Wasn't 
it (they, them) ? 

(5) It wasn't (me, I). It wasn't (they, them). It 
wasn't (him, he). It wasn't (she, her). It wasn't 
(we, us). 

(6) Could it have been (she, her) ? Could it have 
been (him, he) ? Nobody suspected (they, them). 
Could it have been (they, them) ? 

(7) It might have been (I, me). It might have 
been (she, her). It might have been (him, he). It 
might have been (they, them). 

(8) It was (he, him) (who, whom) won the game. 

(9) I shouldn't do it if I were (she, her). 

(10) If I had been (he, him), I should have gone. 

(11) You said it was (him, he) that asked for me. 

(12) I should go, if I were (he, him). 

(13) Is that you? Yes, it's (me, I). 

(14) Did that hit (he, him) ? No, it hit (her, she). 

(15) Is it (she, her) whom I see at the window every 
morning? Yes, it is (her, she). 

(16) It is (her, she) (who, whom) you see. 

(17) Who are (they, them) coming up the street? 

(18) This is (he, him) of (who, whom) I spoke. 

(19) May (we, us) come in ? It is Jessie and (I, 
me). 

(20) I saw (she, her) at the game. I am sure it was 
(she, her) (who, whom) I saw. 



232 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

XL PREDICATE ADJECTIVES 

What part of speech is the word used after the 
verb in each of the following sentences ? 

She sews neatly. 
She seems neat. 

In the first sentence, "neatly" is an adverb, 
because it modifies the verb ; it tells how she 
sews. "Neatly" might be omitted. Read the 
sentence omitting the word "neatly." 

In the second sentence, "neat" is an adjective, 
because it describes the subject "she," to which it 
is coupled by the verb "seems." "Seems" can- 
not form a complete predicate of itself; "neat" 
cannot be omitted. Read the sentence omitting 
"neat." You see that the adjective "neat" is 
necessary to complete the predicate, and at the 
same time it describes the subject. 

An adjective that completes the predicate and describes 
or limits the subject is ealled a Predicate Adjective. 

Great care must be taken not to confound 
predicate adjectives with adverbs or direct ob- 
jects. A predicate noun, pronoun, or adjective 
points back to the subject, which it describes or 
limits. An adverb tells the time, place, manner, 
or degree of the action expressed by the verb. A 
direct object denotes the receiver of the action. 



PREDICATE ADJECTIVES 233 

a. Tell whether the italic words in the follow- 
ing sentences are direct objects, predicate nouns 
or adjectives, or adverbs modifying the verb. 
Give the reason in each case : 

(1) Father called me. Father called again. Father 
became angry. 

(2) My uncle grows corn. Corn tastes sweet. 
Corn grows fast in warm weather. 

(3) Dr. R sings well. Dr. R sang a ballad. 

(4) Livingstone was an Englishman. He became a 
missionary, and explored parts of Africa. 

(5) The ship sailed yesterday. She seemed sea- 
worthy. 

(6) The man looked back. The policeman looked 
surly. 

(7) Reginald writes well. He writes daily. He 
writes letters. 

(8) Mother is sewing late to-night. She sews beau- 
tifully. She is sewing my dress. 

(9) The man turned pirate. Success turned his 
head. He turned around. 

(10) Who fought here? Who fought best? Who 
fought the corporal? 

(11) John's fever continues low. The doctor has 
continued the same medicine. 

(12) Smell this rose. Doesn't it smell sweet? I 
can hardly smell it. 

(13) I twice tasted the chocolate. It tasted delicious. 

(14) The grass was still wet with the early morning 
dew. 

(15) Harry looked frightened. He looked anxiously 
about. 



234 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(16) Gradually the old man grew too old for work. 

(17) The water was smooth and the wind proved 
steady and strong. The day continued fine and every- 
body appeared happy. 



XII. CHOOSING BETWEEN PREDICATE 
ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB 

Persons often make mistakes in choosing be- 
tween an adjective and an adverb after the verbs 
appear, feel, grow, look, sound, smell, and taste. 

If the added word applies to the subject of the 
verb, it should be an adjective ; if to the verb, it 
should be an adverb : as, 

The child looks shy. (It was the child that seemed 
shy.) 

The child looked shyly at me. (It was the look that 
was shy). 

I feel warm. (I am warm.) 

I feel warmly on this subject. (My feelings are 
stirred up.) 

Adjectives should not be used to modify Verbs. 

Adverbs should not be used as Predicate Adjectives. 

As a rule, it is right to use an adjective whenever the 
verb might be changed to some form of " is " or " seems " 
without greatly changing the meaning. 

"I feel weir (not "I feel good") and "You look 
well" (not "You look good") are the correct ex- 
pressions when referring to health. "Well" is 



PREDICATE ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB 235 

here a predicate adjective. "You look good" 
means "You seem good." 

a. What is the difference in meaning between 
the following sentences ? 

(1) That looks good. That looks well. 

(2) We found the way easy. We found the way 
easily. 

(3) The potatoes are boiling soft. The potatoes are 
boiling softly. 

(4) The new bell boy appeared prompt. The new 
bell boy appeared promptly. 

(5) I found Barbara at home happy. I found 
Barbara at home happily. 

b. Which of the words in parentheses should be 
used in the following sentences ? Tell the reason : 

(1) She plays very (good, well). 

(2) The door shut (easy, easily). 

(3) Deal (gentle, gently) with them. 

(4) How (sweet, sweetly) those blossoms smell ! 

(5) He stood (firm, firmly) in spite of opposition. 

(6) She looks (beautiful, beautifully) in a pink gown. 

(7) He felt (awkward, awkwardly) in her presence. 

(8) He did not act (awkward, awkwardly) in her 
presence. 

(9) The wind blows (cold, coldly) through the gaps 
in these mountains. 

(10) Will you come ? (Sure, surely.) 

(11) They seem (happy, happily) together. 

(12) They live (happy, happily) together. 

(13) The grass on the lawn is growing (rapid, 
rapidly). 



236 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(14) This coffee tastes too (strong, strongly). 

(15) R looked (beautiful, beautifully) in her evening 
gown. 

(16) Caruso sang (beautiful, beautifully) last night. 

(17) Are you feeling (bad, badly) ? 

(18) I am not feeling very (well, good). 

(19) The music sounds (beautiful, beautifully) at a 
distance. 

(20) That last medicine tastes (bitterly, bitter). 

(21) How (sweetly, sweet) that bobolink sings ! 

(22) Hush, be (quiet, quietly) ! Walk (quiet, 
quietly) so they will not hear us. 

(23) The bride looked (beautiful, beautifully) and 
her low voice sounded (sweet, sweetly). 

(24) My friend feels (sickiy, sick) and I feel very 
(good, well). 

(25) It all seemed (strange, strangely) to me. The 
man certainly acted (strangely, strange). 

(26) The catcher threw the ball very (bad, badly). 

(27) The motor worked (bad, badly) and delayed us. 

(28) You can do it (easy, easily). 

(29) The job looks very (easy, easily). 

(30) The machine works (easy, easily). 

XIII. PARTICIPLES 

Two important kinds of words are formed from 
verbs and retain some of the characteristics of 
verbs ; but they differ from other verb-forms in 
being used as adjectives or nouns. They are 
called Verbals, and they are of two kinds : (1) ad- 
jective-verbals, called Participles ; and (2) noun- 



PARTICIPLES 237 

verbals, called Infinitives and Gerunds. These words 
are forms of the verb and are exceedingly useful. 

Examine, for instance, the italicized word in 
the following sentence : 

The girl reading a book is my cousin. 

In this sentence "reading" expresses action and 
has an object, "book"; but it does not assert. 
"The girl reading a book" is not a sentence. 
"Reading" is formed from the verb read by add- 
ing "ing" but its use is that of an adjective 
modifying "girl." 

A form of the verb that partakes of the nature of an ad- 
jective is called a Participle. 

The distinguishing marks of a participle are 
these : (1) it is derived from a verb ; (2) it takes, 
or may take, the same object, predicate word, or 
modifiers as the verb from which it is derived ; 
(3) it is used as an adjective. 

Participles are of two principal kinds : 

1. The Present Participle, formed from the 
verb by adding "ing": as, "Hearing a noise, I 
went to the window." In this sentence, " hearing " 
modifies "I." 

2. The Past Participle, usually formed from 
the verb by adding "ed," "d," "t," "en," or 
"n" : as, "The plant called nightshade is poison- 
ous"; "Hidden by the leaves, the nest escaped 



238 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

notice." In these sentences, " called " modifies 
"plant," and "hidden" modifies "nest." 

a. In the following sentences, tell the noun or 
pronoun that each participle describes or limits : 

(i) I saw a child sitting by the road and weeping. 

(2) I went up to her, distressed at her grief, and 
hoping I could help her. 

(3) Peter the Hermit, dressed in a coarse robe, and 
bearing in his hand a crucifix, traveled through Italy 
and France preaching. 

(4) Close beside her, faintly moaning, fair and 

young, a soldier lay, 
Torn with shot and pierced with lances, bleeding 
slow his life away. 

(5) By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 

Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, 
Here once the embattled farmers stood, 
And fired the shot heard round the world. 

b. Make a list of the participles in the following 
selection, and opposite each write the noun or 
pronoun that each modifies : 

For the rest of that day our course and that of the 
Indians was the same. In less than an hour we came 
to where the high, barren prairie terminated, sinking 
down abruptly in steep descent; and standing on 
these heights, we saw below us a great level meadow. 
Laramie Creek bounded it on the left, sweeping along 
in the shadow of the declivities, and passing with its 
shallow and rapid current just below us. We sat on 
horseback, waiting and looking on, while the whole 



USING PARTICIPLES 239 

savage array went pouring past us, hurrying down the 
descent and spreading themselves over the meadow 
below. In a few moments the plain was swarming 
with the moving multitude, some just visible, like 
specks in the distance, others still passing on, pressing 
down, and fording the stream with bustle and con- 
fusion. On the edge of the heights sat half a dozen 
of the elder warriors, gravely smoking and looking 
down with unmoved faces on the wild and striking 
spectacle. 

— Parkman : The Oregon Trail 

XIV. USING PARTICIPLES 

In the following sentence, what does the parti- 
ciple " crossing " go with ? 

Crossing the street, my hat fell off". 

Who or what crossed the street ? This sentence 
is incorrect because there is no noun or pronoun 
that the participle "crossing" can really modify. 
The hat did not do the crossing. The participle 
is dangling in the sentence ; that is, it is not 
attached to a noun or pronoun denoting the sub- 
ject of the action expressed by the participle. 
This fault is corrected in the following sentence, 
in which "crossing" goes with "I" : 

Crossing the street, I lost my hat. 

In using participles, care must be taken always to show 
clearly what noun or pronoun the participle modifies. 



240 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

A participle, and its accompanying words, if not necessary 
to the sense, should be set off with a comma or commas. 

a. Insert in the following sentences the par- 
ticiples (with accompanying words) printed after 
them, making clear by the position what sub- 
stantive the participle modifies : 

(i) The tide flowed through the bridge. Sweeping 
and eddying. 

(2) We lay waste our powers. Getting and spend- 
ing. 

(3) She ran to the door. Hearing a shout. 

(4) The spider inspired Bruce to renewed effort. 
Patiently spinning its web. 

(5) I saw a house gaily decorated with flags. 
Going down Main Street. 

(6) I was afraid of the mastiff. Being a stranger 
and alone. 

(7) The rain drenched the crowd. Pouring down 
suddenly without warning. 

(8) He came in from his farm work. Covered 
with perspiration and dust. 

(9) The tortoise passed the hare. Toiling slowly 
but surely on. 

(10) I saw a man running down the street. Sitting 
by the window. 

b. In the following sentences the participles are 
" dangling." Change the sentences so that each 
participle modifies a substantive to which the 
meaning of the participle applies : 



INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS 241 

(1) Running as fast as possible, the spot was quickly 
reached. 

(2) The ship could hardly reach her port damaged 
by the explosion. 

(3) Coming to the top of the hill, a beautiful view 
appeared. 

(4) Walking down the street, an automobile came 
suddenly round the corner. 

(5) Eating grass by the side of the road, we saw a 
cow. 

(6) Getting up early in the morning, the first thing 
noticed is the eastern sky. 

(7) Coming nearer, the house seemed deserted. 

(8) His education began at the age of six, going to 
the public school. 

(9) Passing down the corridor, a doorway is reached. 
(10) Ringing the bell, the gate opened quickly. 

XV. INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS 

Examine the form and use of the italic words in 
the following sentence : 

To climb 1 , .„ • , 

pi- i- \ steep hills requires a slow pace. 

Here "to climb" and "climbing" are forms of 
the verb "climb," and have a direct object, "hills" ; 
but they do not assert. "To climb (or climbing) 
steep hills" is not a sentence. "To climb" and 
"climbing" are formed from the verb "climb"; 
but they are used to name an action, and therefore 



242 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

they partake of the nature of nouns. Either one 
may be the subject substantive of the sentence. 

A form of the verb that partakes of the nature of a noun 
is called a Verbal Noun. 

The distinguishing marks of a verbal noun art 
these: (i) it is derived from a verb; (2) it takes, 
or may take, the same object, predicate word, or 
modifiers as the verb from which it is derived ; 
(3) it is used as a noun. 

Verbal nouns are of two kinds : 

1. The Infinitive, which is the simple form of 
the verb, often preceded by "to": as, "To obey 
is better than sacrifice"; "You need not wait." 
In these sentences, " to obey " is the subject of 
"is," and "wait" is the direct object of "need." 

2. The Gerund, which is formed from the verb 
by adding "ing"; as, "Splitting rails is hard 
work" ; "The morning was spent in writing 
letters." 

Should we say "I never heard of him telling a 
lie" or "I never heard of his telling a lie" ? The 
speaker means that he never heard of the telling 
of a lie by the person referred to ; he doesn't 
mean that he never heard of him. "Telling" 
is not a participle modifying " him " ; it is a 
verbal noun, a gerund, naming the thing which 
the speaker never heard of. Therefore the pro- 



INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS 243 

noun should be a possessive, modifying the gerund 
"telling." The first of the two sentences is 
wrong ; the second is correct. 

a. Tell whether the infinitives and gerunds in 
the following sentences are used as subjects, direct 
objects, predicate nouns, or as nouns with prepo- 
sitions : 

(1) To see is to believe. 

(2) Most people like to travel. 

(3) One shows his moral courage by daring to do 
right. 

(4) Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for 
being eminent. 

(5) Of all those arts in which the wise excel, 
Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well. 

(6) I enjoy her reading aloud to us. 

(7) His mother is opposed to his playing football. 

(8) Spelling long words is easier for some than for 
others. 

(9) Feeling one's way in the dark is slow work. 
(10) The chief purpose of our army and navy is to 

preserve peace. 

b. First tell whether the italic words are parti- 
ciples or gerunds. Then tell which of the forms 
in parentheses is right. Explain the reason : 

(1) Do you approve of (me, my) going to-day ? 

(2) She never doubted (him, his) having a headache. 

(3) We have often seen (him, his) fishing for trout. 

(4) Don't you remember (me, my) writing to you ? 

(5) He found (me, my) reading "Ivanhoe." 



244 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(6) The accident was caused by the (horse, horse's) 
balking. 

(7) The rain delayed (them, their) starting. 

(8) What is the use of (Tom, Tom's) denying it ? 

(9) What danger is there to (Tom, Tom's) wading in 
shallow water ? 

(10) My mother always encourages (us, our) coming 
to her with our troubles. 

XVI. TENSE 

One of the many wonderful and interesting 
things about language is the way men have con- 
trived to make a verb express not only action but 
also time — present, past, or future. To know 
exactly how this is done by the best speakers and 
writers is of the utmost practical importance ; 
because we are always wanting to speak of actions 
as present, past, or future, and the attempt to 
do it without knowing exactly how it is done by 
the best writers and speakers is the cause of half 
the grammatical mistakes that people make. To 
use verb forms correctly requires accurate knowl- 
edge and constant care; but the mastery of this 
part of grammar is worth all the trouble it takes, 
for if you do not speak like well-informed and 
careful speakers, you run the risk of being consid- 
ered ignorant and vulgar. 

See how bewildered Tom is in the following 



TENSES 245 

conversation, because he does not understand why 
one form is right, another wrong : 

Teacher : Have you done your exercise, Tom ? 

Tom : Yes, I done it last night. (Wrong.) 

Teacher: You must not say "done" in that 
sentence ; say " did." Now answer me correctly. 
Did you do your exercise ? 

Tom : Yes, I have did it. (Wrong again !) 

How is poor Tom to be sure of not making 
mistakes in this troublesome matter until he under- 
stands why "do" is right in one place, "did" in 
another, and "done" in still another? This 
and the next five sections will explain the ways 
in which good writers and speakers make English 
verbs denote time. 

Compare the meaning of the verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

I see the Capitol. 

I saw the Capitol. 

I shall see the Capitol. 

Here are three different forms of the same 
verb, expressing the same action but referring 
to different times — the present, the past, and 
the future. 

The form of a verb that denotes present time is called the 
Present Tense. 

The form of a verb that denotes past time is called the 
Past Tense. 



246 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

The form of a verb that denotes future time is called the 
Future Tense. 

a. What Is the tense of each verb in the follow- 
ing sentences ? 

(i) Who killed Cock Robin ? 

(2) We shall surely expect you. 

(3) No mate, no comrade, Lucy knew. 

(4) They are fighting for the cause of justice. 

(5) They will fight for the cause of justice. 

(6) They fought for the cause of justice. 

(7) Still sits the schoolhouse by the road. 

(8) My sister goes to Vassar College ; she entered 
the sophomore class. 

(9) She will teach school after her graduation. 
(10) Father says no one will ever know why the ship 

sank. 

b. Change the verbs in the following sentences 
to the present tense : 

(1) The brook splashed and murmured down the glen. 

(2) The boys will fish in it all morning. 

(3) They will be happy if they catch some trout. 

(4) They often lost the fish after it took their bait. 

(5) They will never be discouraged by poor luck. 

XVII. THE PERFECT TENSES 

We often wish to express an action as finished or 
completed in present, past, or future time. For 
example, instead of saying, "She is writing a 
letter," we may wish to denote that the writing 



TENSES 247 

is now finished, that she now has the letter written. 
Thus : 

There ! I have written my exercise. 

Yesterday, when school ended, I had written two 
sentences. 

To-morrow, when school begins, I shall have written 
a story. 

"Have written" denotes action completed in 
present time. "Had written" denotes action 
completed in past time. "Shall have written" 
denotes action completed in future time. 

To express an action as completed in present, past, or 
future time, we use a verb phrase consisting of a form of 
the verb have and a past participle. 

The form of a verb that denotes action completed in present 
time is called the Present Perfect Tense. 

The form of a verb that denotes action completed in past 
time is called the Past Perfect Tense. 

The form of a verb that denotes action completed in future 
time is called the Future Perfect Tense. 

We may tabulate the tenses of verbs as follows : 

TENSES OF THE VERB "is" 

Present Tense: I am, he is 

Past Tense: I was 

Future Tense: I shall be 

Present Perfect Tense: I have been 
Past Perfect Tense: I had been 
Future Perfect Tense : I shall have been 



248 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

TENSES OF THE VERB " WRITE " 

Present Tense: I write 

Past Tense : I wrote 

Future Tense : I shall write 

Present Perfect Tense : I have written 
Past Perfect Tense : I had written 
Future Perfect Tense : I shall have written 

a. Tabulate as above the six tenses of call. 

b. What is the tense of each verb in the follow- 
ing sentences ? 

(i) Katharine has just read that book. 

(2) John will have finished it in an hour. 

(3) He had nearly finished it at supper time. 

(4) Where have you been all these years ? 

(5) I hope you will often call, now that you have 
returned. 

(6) Many inventors had attempted flying machines 
before the Wrights built their successful airplane. 

(7) I have seen him often to-day, and I shall see 
him soon again. 

(8) I shall not go, for my father has refused per- 
mission. 

(9) She had been elected leader only a few days 
before she visited us. 

(10) I hope she will have a pleasant visit. 

XVIII. PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC 
TENSES 

1. Instead of the tenses studied in the last 
sections, we often use a form of the verb is and a 



PROGRESSIVE AND EMPHATIC TENSES 249 

present participle, to represent an action as pro- 
gressing: thus, "I am writing" 

A verb phrase consisting of a form of the verb is and a 
present participle is called a Progressive Tense. 

The progressive tenses of write are these : 

Present Progressive : I am writing 

Past Progressive : I was writing 

Future Progressive : I shall be writing 

Present Perfect Progressive : I have been writing 
Past Perfect Progressive : I had been writing 
Future Perfect Progressive : I shall have been writing 

2. Instead of the simple present and past 
tenses, we often use do and did with the verb, 
to make an assertion emphatically : thus, 

Present Emphatic : I do write 

Past Emphatic: I did write 

These same verb phrases are also used in inter- 
rogative and negative sentences : thus, 

Present Interrogative : Do you write ? 

Present Negative : I do not write. 

a. Give the six progressive tenses of call. 

b. Use in sentences the present and past em- 
phatic tenses of call. 

c. What is the tense of each verb in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

(1) Mildred has been motoring all morning. 

(2) Do you enjoy motoring ? 



250 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(3) No, I do not enjoy it. 

(4) I did enjoy it before our serious accident. 

(5) Mildred and Elizabeth are reading now; they 
will be eating luncheon soon. 

XIX. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 

The key to the correct use of the tenses of a 
verb is knowing its present tense, its past tense, 
and its past participle. Every other part of a 
verb is formed from one of these — and always 
in the same way. 

The Present Tense, the Past Tense, and the Past Participle 
are called the Principal Parts of a verb. 

Notice how the verbs in these sentences form 
the past tense and the past participle : 

Present: I obey you. 
Past: I obeyed you. 
Past Participle : I have obeyed you. 

Present: We hope for the best. 

Past : We hoped for the best. 

Past Participle: We have hoped for the best. 

Present: They mean well. 

Past: They meant well. 

Past Participle : They have meant well. 

Most English verbs form their Past Tense and Past Parti- 
ciple by adding ed, d, or t to the present tense. 

A verb that forms its past tense and past participle by 
adding ed, d, or t to the present tense is called a Regular 
Verb. 



LEARNING PRINCIPAL PARTS 251 

A verb that forms its past tense and past participle in some 
other way is called an Irregular Verb. 

The following is an example of an irregular 
verb : 

Present: They give liberally. 

Past: They gave liberally. 

Past Participle : They have given liberally. 

Irregular verbs are few in number compared 
with the thousands of verbs in our language ; but 
they are very important because they are among 
the most commonly used. 

XX. LEARNING PRINCIPAL PARTS 

More grammatical mistakes are made from not 
knowing the principal parts of verbs than from 
any other cause. 

To use verbs correctly, we must know their principal parts. 

If you do not already know the principal parts 
of all the following verbs, which are very common 
and often misused, you should learn them by heart. 

If you already know some but not all, learn 
those you do not know. 

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle 

beat beat beaten 

begin began begun 

beseech besought besought 

bet bet bet 



252 



THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


bid ("command") 


bade 


bidden 


bid ("offer money") 


bid 


bid 


bite 


bit 


bitten 


blow- 


blew 


blown 


break 


broke 


broken 


bring 


brought 


brought 


build 


built 


built 


burst 


burst 


burst 


buy 


bought 


bought 


catch 


caught 


caught 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


cling 


clung 


clung 


come 


came 


come 


creep 


crept 


crept 


dive 


dived 


dived 


do 


did 


done 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


drive 


drove 


driven 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


fall 


fell 


fallen 


feel 


felt 


felt 


fight 


fought 


fought 


flee 


fled 


fled 


fly 


flew 


flown 


flow 


flowed 


flowed 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


get 


got 


got 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grow 


grew 


grown 



LEARNING PRINCIPAL PARTS 



253 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


hide 


hid 


hidden 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


know 


knew 


known 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lie ("recline") 


lay 


lain 


lie ("tell a falsehood' 


') lied 


lied 


raise 


raised 


raised 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 


set 


set 


set 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shine 


shone 


shone 


show 


showed 


shown 


shrink 


shrank 


shrunk 


sing 


sang 


sung 


sink 


sank 


sunk 


sit 


sat 


sat 


slay 


slew 


slain 


sling 


slung 


slung 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


spend 


spent 


spent 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


sting 


stung 


stung 


strike 


struck 


struck 


string 


strung 


strung 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore 


sworn 



254 



THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 



Present Tense 


Past Tense 


Past Participle 


swell 


swelled 


swollen 


swim 


swam 


swum 


swing 


swung 


swung 


take 


took 


taken 


teach 


taught 


taught 


tear 


tore 


torn 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


tread 


trod 


trodden 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


weep 


wept 


wept 


wet 


wet 


wet 


win 


won 


won 


wind 


wound 


wound 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


write 


wrote 


written 



XXI. USING TENSES 



a. The principal parts of a verb are the forms 
needed to fill the blanks in the following sen- 
tences : 

Present Tense: I now. 

Past Tense : I yesterday. 

Past Participle: I have . 

Fill the above blanks with the principal parts 
of the verbs in Section XX, or of those that your 
teacher may select. 

b. Change each of the italic verbs in the fol- 



USING TENSES 255 

lowing sentences, first to the past tense, then to 
the present perfect tense : 

(1) I do it myself. 

(2) Tom swims very well. 

(3) Harry sees me coming. 

(4) He draws funny pictures. 

(5) The wind blows furiously. 

(6) They go to bed early. 

(7) They catch many bass. 

(8) The guests begin to go home. 

(9) They sit in the third pew from the front. 

(10) The Susquehanna River overflows its banks. 

(11) Helen comes in and lays her coat on a chair. 

(12) Both short-stop and pitcher run for the ball. 

(13) The wild goose flies southward to a warmer 
clime. 

(14) They eat their supper as if they were half 
starved. 

(15) The Negro women set their baskets on their 
heads. 

(16) George dives better than any other boy in the 
crowd. 

(17) The catcher often throws the ball to the second 
base. 

(18) The savages who live on this island slay their 
captives. 

(19) The workmen lay the rails for the track with 
great care. 

(20) Obedient to the doctor's directions, she lies 
down an hour every day. 

(21) April showers bring May flowers. 

(22) Our team beats them in every game. 



256 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

c. Change each of the italic verbs in the fol- 
lowing sentences, first to the past tense, then to 
the past perfect tense : 

He writes home. 

I forget his name. 

The sleeper awakes. 

Tramps steal my apples. 

This child breaks her toys. 

They go by steamer. 

Some one takes my hat. 

I see the President often. 

He gets along fairly well. 

They slay their prisoners. 

The enemy come in force. 

The boys dive three times. 

I set the lamp on the table. 

A mist rises before my eyes. 

The water in my pitcher freezes. 

He speaks his declamation well. 

The boys are eating their supper. 

He throws cold water on my plan. 

The Ohio River overflows its banks. 

He sits by the hour talking politics. 

Rab shakes the little dog by the neck. 

This proves the truth of my assertion. 

The wind blows my papers off the table. 

A robin flies to the vines by my window. 

John is driving the cows out of the corn. 

I lie on the couch twenty minutes to rest. 

This fact clearly shows the prisoner's guilt. 

He wakes me every night by his restlessness. 

He rides alone from Litchfield to Waterbury. 



SHALL OR WILL 257 

d. Change the verbs in the following sentences 
to the past tense : 

(1) Dawn comes slowly and fills the east with light. 

(2) Presently the sun rises and, warms the air. 

(3) The birds sing merrily; the cattle go to the 
meadow. 

(4) The grass is still wet with dew ; a breeze springs 
up. 

(5) Various sounds of men reach the ear ; the world 
is awake. 

e. Choosing your verbs from the following 
list, make five interesting sentences in which you 
use the present perfect tense, three in which you 
use the past perfect ( tense, and two in which 
you use the future perfect tense : 

fight sing work come try 

stand play see bring send 

XXII. SHALL OR WILL 

Shall and will are troublesome words, because 
they are so easily confounded. It is correct to say, 
"I shall drown; nobody will help me." We 
express a very different thought if we interchange 
the italic words and say, "I will drown; nobody 
shall help me." What does this last sentence 
mean ? 

To express futurity, shall is used in the first person, will 
in the second and third persons. 



258 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

To express determination, will is used in the first person, 
shall in the second and third persons. 

The following table shows the correct usage : 

Futurity • Determination 

I shall go. I will go. 

You will go. You shall go. 

He, she, it will go. He, she, it shall go. 

We shall go. We will go. 

You will go. You shall go. 

They will go. They shall go. 

In questions, the same word is used (shall or will) that is 
expected in the answer. 

The following questions are correct : 

(i) Shall we go to-morrow ? {Answer: We shall.) 

(2) Shall you go to-morrow? (Answer: We shall.) 

(3) Will you go to-morrow ? (Answer : We will.) 

What is the difference in meaning between 
questions (2) and (3) ? 

Should and would are the past tenses of shall and will, 
and in general follow the same rules. 

a. Change the verbs in the following sentences 
to the future tense : 

(1) Spring follows winter. 

(2) April showers bring May flowers. 

(3) Farmers plow their fields with horses or tractors. 

(4) They use machinery for most of their planting. 

(5) The crops they raise feed the nation. 



SHALL OR WILL 259 

b. Make ten interesting sentences containing 
the past and future tenses of fight, stand, sing, 
play, and laugh. 

c. What is the difference in meaning between 
the following sentences ? 

(1) He will come. He shall come. 

(2) Will you be there ? Shall you be there ? 

(3) I shall not see him. I will not see him. 

(4) We could do it if he would help. We could do 
it if he should help. 

(5) He thought I should go. He thought I would 
g°- 

d. Insert the proper word, "shall" or "will," 
in the following blanks. Tell the reason for your 
choice : 

(1) we go to-morrow ? 

(2) We have rain soon. 

(3) I be glad to see you. 

(4) you be able to come ? 

(5) I be twelve in December. 

(6) How I send the package ? 

(7) If I do not hurry, I be late. 

(8) I bring a chair for the lady ? 

(9) He thinks we soon have rain. 

(10) I am afraid we miss the train. 

(11) We never forget this kindness. 

(12) we have time to get our tickets ? 

(13) We be pleased to have you call. 

(14) I fear that I not be able to come. 

(15) He thinks he not be able to come. 



2 6o THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(16) He asks how he send the package. 

(17) It is probable that I be away at that 

time. 

(18) you meet me at the corner in five min- 
utes ? 

(19) They declare they never forget this kind- 
ness. 

(20) we have another chance at this examina- 
tion ? 

e. Insert the proper word, "should "or "would," 
in the following blanks : 

(1) I thought I die. 

(2) I thought he die. 

(3) I thought you die. 

(4) I like to see the Giants play. 

(5) I be glad if you explain this problem. 

/. Do not make the mistake of using "of" 
instead of "have" after should, would, could, 
might, and must. Say, "I should have come," 
not "I should of come." Fill the following blanks 
with the right word : 

(1) I could gone to the coast this year. 

(2) Your carelessness might lost the game. 

(3) He must had an accident, for he would 

not been late if he could helped it. 

XXIII. VOICE 

When studying transitive verbs, you learned 
that the subject of a transitive verb denotes the 



VOICE 261 

doer of an action which "passes over" to a receiver 
denoted by a direct object. 

It often fits our thought better to turn the thing 
around and speak of a person or thing, not as 
doing something, but as having something done to 
him or it. Our language offers an easy way thus 
to reverse the idea expressed by a transitive verb. 
We can do it by using a verb phrase made up of 
those two words which are useful in so many ways 
— the verb is and a past participle. 

Compare the verbs in the following sentences : 

Grocers sell butter. 

Butter is sold by grocers. 

The verb "sell" represents the subject of the 
sentence as doing the action. The verb "is sold" 
represents the subject of the sentence as receiving 
the action. 

The form of a verb that represents the subject as doing 
the action is called the Active Voice. 

The form of a verb that represents the subject as receiving 
the action, or as produced by it, is called the Passive Voice. 

The Passive Voice is made by using a form of the verb 
is with a past participle. 

The passive voice may be tabulated as fol- 
lows : 

Present : Butter is sold here. 
Past: Butter was sold here. 
Future: Butter will be sold here. 



262 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Present Perfect: Butter has been sold here. 
Past Perfect: Butter had been sold here. 
Future Perfect : Butter zuill have been sold here. 

The verb is and a present participle form the progressive 
tenses. 
The verb is and a past participle form the passive voice. 
The verb has and a past participle form the perfect tenses. 

a. Tell whether the verbs in the following sen- 
tences are in the Active Voice or the Passive Voice : 

(i) Uncas shot a deer. 

(2) A deer was shot by Uncas. 

(3) It was drinking at a stream. 

(4) Hawkeye, Uncas, and his father were conducting 
a party through the forest. 

(5) After they had been travelling some time, they 
had been forced to take refuge in a cave, where they 
were attacked by hostile Indians who had followed them. 

b. Change the following sentences into the 
passive form, without changing the time referred 
to: 

(1) Sculptors make statues. 

(2) The Puritans founded Harvard College. 

(3) Manners reveal character. 

(4) A sense of duty pursues us ever. 

(5) Gentle deeds make known a gentle mind. 

(6) Little strokes fell great oaks. 

(7) A crumb of bread thrown in jest made Pres- 
cott, the historian, blind for life. 

(8) They found her lying in the snow frozen to 
death. 



MISUSED VERBS 263 

(9) The sly agent imposed upon us both. 
(10) The wounded man's wife took care of him. 

XXIV. MISUSED VERBS 

a. Can, could refer to ability or power; may, 
might refer to permission. Do not say "Can I 
go too?" when you mean "Am I permitted?" 
Say, "May I go too?" Fill the following blanks 
with the right word : 

(1) Miss Brown, I change my seat? 

(2) Miss Brown, we go home at noon ? 

(3) Yes, you go at noon, if you finish 

your work by that time. 

(4) I asked Uncle Harry if I go sailing, and 

he said I if I swim. 

(5) you play tennis ? Yes ; I play with 

you ? 

(6) You wear your pink dress, if I find 

time to mend it. 

(7) Edith take the children, if you think she 

control them. 

(8) we play now ? Miss Brown said we 

write our compositions in school. 

b. Learn means to acquire knowledge ; the 
word meaning to impart knowledge is teach. 
Do not say, "Father learned me to swim." Fill 
the following blanks with the right word : 

(1) Who you to read ? 

(2) My Aunt Carrie me. 



264 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(3) When did Blanche to write ? 

(4) She last year. 

(5) Who you that trick ? 

(6) My brother me that trick yesterday. 

(7) This should you a lesson. 

(8) Nature beasts to know their friends. 

c. Do not use leave or left when you mean let. 
Do not say, "Leave me go." Say, "Let me go." 

d. Do not say had ought or hadn't ought. 
"Had" in this expression serves no purpose. 
Say, "I ought to go" or "I ought not to go." 

e. Do not say have got when you mean simply 
have or possess. " I have got a knife " means " I 
have acquired a knife." 

/. To emigrate is to move from a country ; to 
immigrate is to move into a country. A man who 
leaves his home in Italy to make a new home in 
America emigrates from Italy. On board the 
steamer he is an Italian emigrant. When he 
reaches our shores and lands, he becomes an im- 
migrant, because he has immigrated to America. ■ 

g. Do not say guess when you mean think. Do 
not say, " I guess I won't go." Say, " I think I 
won't go." 

h. Learn the exact meanings of any other verbs 
that your teacher selects. 



CHAPTER NINE 

DESCRIPTION 
I. IMPORTANCE OF DESCRIPTION 

When you are telling a story, you make it seem 
much more real if you tell about the persons and 
places so clearly that your listeners can see them 
as plainly in their minds as you do. When you 
give a mental picture in words, you describe. 

The first step in description is observation. No 
two things are just alike in this world. You may 
have a dog of the same kind as the one owned by 
your chum, yet they do not look exactly alike, 
and they do not act alike. To describe the dogs 
clearly, you must see the difference clearly. 

And we see with our hearts as much as with 
our eyes. Did you ever know a boy who could 
see as many interesting things about your pet as 
you yourself can see without half looking ? So 
you can describe best the things you know best, 
— the flowers J in your garden, the dolls which 
you have dressed, the dog which has followed 
you to the woods, the house where you live. 
265 



266 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Sometimes you dislike things ; then all the 
disagreeable qualities of the object are just as 
vivid in your mind as are the beautiful character- 
istics of the things you love. What picture have 
you of the street urchin who hit your new hat 
with a wet, dirty snowball, or of the old hen 
which scratched up your flower garden ? Every- 
one sees better when he has strong feeling about 
the object he sees ; it may be a feeling of dislike, 
disgust, admiration, reverence, or love. 

II. KINDS OF DESCRIPTION 

Descriptions are of two kinds, each serving its 
own purpose. First, there are descriptions that 
serve simply to identify, such as the description 
that appears with the advertisement of Dog 
Lost; second, there are descriptions that serve 
to arouse feeling toward the object described, 
such as Dr. Brown's description of Rab. De- 
scriptions of the first type are called practical 
or scientific ; those of the second, literary. 

As you read the following, note the differences 
in the way the dogs are described. If you wished 
to get the reward offered, which description 
would you find most helpful ? But which dog 
do you know best ? Which do you like most ? 



KINDS OF DESCRIPTION 267 

a. Lost : A rangy setter ; reddish-brown color ; a 
white mark over left eye ; white throat ; left fore foot 
white ; answers to name, " Sport." A reward of 
twenty-five dollars given for his return. 

F. P. Jones, 
1 22 1 Oak Street 

b. Wully was a little yaller dog. A yaller dog, be 
it understood, is not the same as a yellow dog. He is 
not simply a canine whose capillary covering is highly 
charged with yellow pigment. He is the mongrelest 
mixture of all mongrels, the least common multiple of 
all dogs. He is Nature's attempt to restore the ances- 
tral jackal, the parent stock of all dogs. For this 
common cur is shrewd, active, and hardy, and far 
better equipped for the real struggle of life than any 
of his " thoroughbred " kinsmen. 

— Thompson-Seton 

c. Nobody could hope to unravel the lines of his 
ancestry. In all the wonderfully mixed and varied 
dog-tribe I never saw any creature very much like 
him, though in some of his sly, soft, gliding motions 
and gestures he brought the fox to mind. He was 
short-legged and bunchy-bodied, and his hair, though 
smooth, was long and silky and slightly waved, so that 
when the wind was at his back it ruffled, making him 
look shaggy. At first sight his only noticeable feature 
was his fine tail, which was about as airy and shady as 
a squirrel's, and was carried curled forward almost to 
his nose. On closer inspection you might notice his 
thin sensitive ears, and sharp eyes with cunning tan- 
spots above them. 

His master assured me that he was a perfect wonder 



268 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

of a dog, could endure cold and hunger like a bear, 
swim like a seal, and was wondrous wise and cunning. 

— John Muir 

III. CHOOSING AN OBJECT FOR DESCRIPTION 

a. The following rules will help you in preparing 
descriptions : 

(i) Choose an object in which you are interested, 
no matter what the cause of your interest. 

(2) Make it your business to know the object 
thoroughly; to see something about it which 
makes it different from all others of the same class. 

(3) Describe the object so that your hearer or 
reader can see it just as you do. 

b. Make a list of ten objects which you would 
like to describe. 

IV. DESCRIBING A FAMILIAR OBJECT 

a. You have lost some pet, — a dog, a cat, a 
pair of pigeons, a rabbit, an old hen, a calf, a 
colt, — and you write a notice to be inserted in 
the paper. Remember that this notice is a descrip- 
tion for identification, and must be accurate, and 
must contain some details which distinguish your 
pet from others of the same class. 

b. Give a description of the same pet that will 
make us feel toward it much as you do. 



DESCRIBING A FAMILIAR OBJECT 269 

c. Read the following descriptions : 

(1) For Sale. — Five- room bungalow," two blocks 
from bathing beach ; large living room, paneled walls, 
open fireplace ; airy, light dining room with beamed 
ceiling ; modern kitchen ; two large bedrooms ; a 
modern bathroom ; steam heat ; electric light ; 
wired veranda 12 X 8. 

— Daily Newspaper 

(2) His dwelling was a cottage, looking out upon the 
Avon and its bordering meadows ; and was a picture 
of that neatness, order, and comfort which pervade the 
humblest dwellings in this country. A low white- 
washed room, with a stone floor carefully scrubbed, 
served for parlor, kitchen, and hall. Rows of pewter 
and earthen dishes glittered along the dresser. On 
an old oaken table, well rubbed and polished, lay the 
family Bible and prayer book, and the drawer con- 
tained the family library, composed of about half a 
score of well-thumbed volumes. An ancient clock, 
that important article of cottage furniture, ticked on 
the opposite side of the room, with a bright warming- 
pan hanging on one side of it, and the old man's horn- 
handled Sunday cane on the other. The fireplace, as 
usual, was wide and deep enough to admit a gossip 
knot within its jambs. 

— Irving 

In the first description the purpose is to give 
some accurate and important information about 
the house that was for sale, such as size, color, 
and shape. 

In the second description the purpose is to give 



270 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

a picture of the old man's home, — a picture that 
would show not walls and empty rooms, but a 
home noted for neatness, order, and comfort, a 
home in which real people lived. 

Compare the living rooms of these houses. 
Which can you see more clearly ? Which gives 
you a homey feeling ? What things in the room 
make you like it ? 

Washington Irving's description arouses feelings 
of pleasure, comfort, and happiness, and is called 
an artistic or literary description. To this class 
belong most of the descriptions found in poetry, 
stories, and in all other writing that may be called 
literature. 

d. Many of you have planned a bungalow you 
would like for yourselves some day. In it one 
room was especially attractive to you. 

Write specifications for that room, telling on 
which side of the house it is to be, how large, 
where the door is to enter, where the windows 
are to be, and any other things that seem to 
you important. So far it is an empty room. 

Now furnish it as you would like it, and make 
us feel as you do about it. Do your friends wish 
to stay there when they come to see you ? Why ? 

e. Choose one of the subjects suggested below 
and prepare a description to give orally to the 



DESCRIBING A BIRD 271 

class. Think it out with just as much care as 
you would use in writing it. 

(1) You may be one of a group of boys who have a 
shack or dug-out. What is there in it that makes it 
so attractive to you fellows ? 

(2) A little room right up under the eaves may be 
the place you like best. It has been the place where 
you could be all alone, and so you like it. 

(3) Many boys have a shop in the basement, in a 
corner of the barn or shed. Tools, wires, machines, a 
bench, make it an attractive place on a rainy day. 
Have you such a shop ? 

(4) Robert Louis Stevenson loved the hayloft in the 
barn. He wrote : 

O what a joy to clamber there. 

O what a place for play, 
With the sweet, the dim, the dusty air, 

The happy hills of hay. 

(5) The attic, with its trunks full of old clothes, its 
old furniture, books, and half-forgotten treasures, is a 
delightful place in which to spend a rainy day. Do 
you know such an attic ? 

(6) The pantry with its store of goodies attracts most 
boys and girls. Can you picture an especially attrac- 
tive one ? 

V. DESCRIBING A BIRD 

a. Which of the two following descriptions is 
literary ? W^hich practical ? Give reasons for 
your answers. 



272 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(i) The American Crow is 19 inches from the end of 
his bill to the tip of his tail. His feathers are black 
and shining. His habits make him disliked and feared 
by the farmer and by the smaller birds. He steals the 
farmer's grain and robs other birds' nests of their eggs 
and nestlings. His note is a harsh " Caw ! caw ! " 
(2) With rakish eye and plenished crop, 
Oblivious of the farmer's gun, 
Upon the naked ash-tree top 

The crow sits basking in the sun. 

An old ungodly rogue, I wot ! 

For perched in black against the blue, 
His feathers, torn with beak and shot, 

Let woeful glints of April through. 

— William Canton 

In which description are facts given that would 
enable you to identify the crow ? Which shows 
you the picture of a particular old crow ? 

What does " perched in black against the blue " 
mean ? 

Is there anything to show that he is brave 
or daring ? 

What show r s that the farmer has punished the 
crow ? 

What shows that the other birds have tried 
to punish him ? 

b. Give a good description, oral or written, as 
your teacher may direct, of the bird you like the 
most, or the bird that you most dislike. Try to 



DESCRIBING A FLOWER 273 

make your hearers or readers feel the friendliness 
or the dislike that you feel toward this bird. 

Is it a robin ? or a bluebird ? or a meadow lark ? 
or a scarlet tanager ? or an oriole ? 

Is it a blackbird? or a bluejay? or an English 
sparrow ? or a hawk ? or a crow ? 

VL DESCRIBING A FLOWER 

a. Many poets have loved the daisy. It is so 
common, so faithful, and so neighborly. 

After the following practical description (1) 
you will find two appreciations by great poets, (2) 
and (3). Which description do you prefer ? Why ? 

(1) The daisy is a low composite herb with a yellow 
disk and white rays. It is so common that it is better 
known than most of our other common native flowers. 
It grows profusely in any climate or soil from June until 
September. 

(2) There is a flower, a little flower, 

With silver crest and golden eye, 
That welcomes every changing hour 
And weathers every sky. 

But this bold floweret climbs the hill, 
Hides in the forest, haunts the glen, 

Plays on the margin of the rill, 
Peeps round the fox's den. 

— James Montgomery 



274 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(3) A little Cyclops, with one eye 

Staring to threaten and defy, 
That thought comes next — and instantly 

The freak is over, 
The shape will vanish, and behold 

A silver shield with boss of gold, 
That spreads itself, some Fairy bold 

In fight to cover ! 

I see the glittering form afar ; — 

And then thou art a pretty star; 
Not quite so fair as many are 

In heaven above thee ! 
Yet like a star with glittering crest, 

Self-poised in air, thou seem'st to rest ; — 
May peace come never to his nest, 

Who shall reprove thee ! 

— Wordsworth 

Contrast the way in which the color of the 
daisy is told in the above selections. How do you 
know the flower blooms from spring until fall ? 
That it is at home in every kind of place ? What 
was a Cyclops ? What was very peculiar about 
these warriors ? Which picture of the daisy do 
you like best, — when it is a Cyclops, a fairy's 
shield, or a star ? 

b. Before you attempt to describe, orally or in 
writing, "The Flower I Love Best," ask your 
teacher to read and discuss with you some of the 
following poems. Then describe your flower. 






DESCRIBING A SCHOOL 275 

To the Small Celandine. Wordsworth 

To the Daisy (not the one just quoted). Wordsworth 

To the Daisy. Burns 

The Fringed Gentian. Bryant 

The Dandelion. Lowell 

Violet, Sweet Violet. Lowell 
Sixteen lines from "The Vision of Sir 
Launfal," beginning, "And what is 

so rare as a day in June." Lowell 

VII. DESCRIBING A SCHOOL 

a. Compare the two following descriptions of a 
schoolhouse : 

(1) The schoolhouse will be a frame building 32 ft. 
by 20 ft. The roof will slant abruptly from a high 
ridge pole. The eaves are to project fully two feet 
beyond the walls. It will stand four-square to the 
points of the compass, — a door north and another 
south. Three windows 4X3 are to be placed at equal 
distances apart on the east and west sides of the build- 
ing. A flagstaff 15 ft. high, surmounted by a gold 
ball, is to be raised from the ridge pole over the north 
door. The building is to be painted red. 

— Mary Caroline Crawford 

(2) Still sits the schoolhouse by the road, 

A ragged beggar sunning ; 
Around it still the sumachs grow, 
And blackberry-vines are running. 

Within, the master's desk is seen, 
Deep scarred by raps official ; 



276 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

The warping floor, the battered seats, 
The jack-knife's carved initial. 

The charcoal frescoes on its wall ; 

Its door's worn sill, betraying 
The feet that, creeping slow to school, 

Went storming out to playing ! 

— Whittier 

Which of these descriptions would you give to a 
carpenter ? Why ? W^hich would appeal to an old 
pupil ? Why ? W T hy does the schoolhouse make 
Whittier think of a beggar ? What does it beg 
for ? W^hy should it be called "a ragged beggar" ? 

b. Give an oral description that may be sug- 
gested by one of the following. First make an 
outline of your description : 

(i) The country school that I once attended. 

(2) The city school that I once attended. 

(3) The schoolroom that I liked best. 

(4) How my schoolroom is arranged. 

(5) Howl arrange the things in or on my desk so as 
to have them most convenient. 

(6) A school that I once visited (a high school, 
technical high, trade school, open-air school). 

VIII. THE VIEWPOINT 

A description is a word picture. You could not 
on the same film take a picture of one boy a 
block away and of another ten feet away. One of 



THE VIEWPOINT 277 

them. would be "out of focus." Just so with the 
eye. You can see things about a boy ten feet away 
that you cannot see at a distance. 

You should not put into description things you do not see 
from where you are supposed to be standing. 

Whenever you give a description, remember that 
your eyes are just like the lens of a camera. They 
do not see around corners, nor do they get all 
little details at a long distance. 

a. Read these two descriptions and tell where 
each writer must have stood when he got his 
picture : 

(1) As we gained the top of the gap, the prospect 
beyond began to disclose itself. First, we saw a long, 
dark line of ragged clouds upon the horizon, while 
above them rose the peaks of the Medicine Bow 
Range, the vanguard of the Rocky Mountains ; then 
little by little the plain came into view, a vast green 
uniformity, forlorn and tenantless, though Laramie 
Creek glistened in a waving line over its surface, with- 
out a bush or a tree upon its banks. As yet, the round 
projecting shoulder of a hill intercepted a part of the 
view. I rode in advance, when suddenly I could dis- 
tinguish a few dark spots on the prairie, along the bank 
of the stream. 

" Buffalo ! " said I. 

" Horses ! " exclaimed Raymond, lashing his mule 
forward as he spoke. 

— Parkman 
(In The Oregon Trail) 



278 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(2) The little house where Miggy lives has a copper- 
beech in the dooryard. The house is no-color, with 
trimmings of another no-color for contrast, and the 
little front porch looks like something that has started 
to run out of the front and is being sternly snatched 
backward. The door stood ajar and no one was 
about. We rapped, for above the bell-push was a 
legend of Aunt Erne's inscribing, saying, " Bell don't 
ring." For a moment our summons was unanswered. 
Then Miggy called from upstairs. 

— Zona Gale 

b. It is often hard to get started with a descrip- 
tion. One good way is to tell how you happened 
to see the thing you describe. In this you really 
state your viewpoint. Make a description sug- 
gested by one of the following beginnings : 

(1) I had heard Jack crying for some time; but I 
could not find him. At last I opened the trap door 
where they put the coal into the bin, and such a sight ! 

(2) We had now reached the top of the long hill, and 
how far we could see ! 

(3) I had wondered just how her home would look, 
and now I stood at the gate, looking up the graveled 
walk which led between the rows of old elms up to the 
front door. 

c. Write two introductions to descriptions. 
Make them as different as possible. Like those 
above, each introduction should give your view- 
point. Other pupils may add the descriptions 
that your introductions suggest. 



THE MIND'S VIEWPOINT 279 

IX. THE MIND'S VIEWPOINT 

In describing, you must tell only what you see from where 
you stand ; and if you wish your description to arouse a cer- 
tain feeling, you must mention only such things as help to 
produce that feeling. 

If you wish the picture to be happy, you must 
include only those things which made you happy 
when you saw the object. 

a. Notice in the first description below that 
only those things are mentioned which belong 
in a picture of a lovely morning. What are 
the things that make you think of morning and 
sunshine ? 

This morning I walked a little way along the moun- 
tain road, and stood awhile in the shadow of some 
oak and chestnut trees, — it being a warm, bright, 
sunshiny morning. The shades lay long from the 
trees and other objects, as at sunset, but how different 
this cheerful and light radiance from the mild repose of 
sunset ! Locusts, crickets, and other insects were 
making music. Cattle were feeding briskly, with 
morning appetites. The wakeful voices of children 
were heard in a neighboring hollow. The dew damped 
the road, and formed many-colored drops in the grass. 
In short, the world was not weary with a long, sultry 
day, but in a fresh, recruited state, fit to carry it through 
such a day. 

— Hawthorne 
(In American Note- Books) 



280 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

b. Read this description of a hot noon. Note 
the objects introduced, and how each makes you 
feel hot: 

The sun-glare lies on the road and the field and 
the house. The beetles buzz and buzz, and the hens 
chuckle drowsily, half sunk in the gray dust. There 
are only three little white clouds in all the warm, blue 
sky. It is quite still, except for the hens and the 
beetles, and the occasional flap of the collie's tail on 
the warm flags. No one passes up or down the road. 
It is the hot noon sleep of the country in August. 

X. STUDYING DESCRIPTIONS FOR FEELING 

a. In reading the following description you 
should know that Ellen is twelve years old and 
going to a tea-party. Are you sorry for Ellen ? 
Why? 

Ellen pitied herself, but submitted to the brown 
ribbon with only a quiver of her little red upper lip. 
She gave a despairing glance in the long glass, and 
saw a small, slender figure in a green frock, — a frock 
reaching nearly to her ankles, and made very simply, 
with only a frill in the neck and sleeves for trimming ; 
she saw the white dimity apron, with the tabs pinned 
up on each shoulder ; then, rosy cheeks, big, troubled 
eyes, and the brown ribbon tying back the straight, 
silken brown hair. 

b. In the next description nothing is introduced 
which does not help you to see that "Bud" had 
been in trouble. What sort of trouble was it ? 



STUDYING DESCRIPTIONS 281 

Mr. Pennington's glance at his son showed that 
Piggy was unharmed. A swift survey of the others 
gave each, save Bud, a bill of health. But when 
Mr. Pennington's eyes fell on Bud, he leaned on a 
show-case and laughed till he shook all over ; for 
Bud, with a rimless hat on a towseled head, with a 
face scratched till it looked like a railroad map, with 
a torn shirt that exposed a dirty shoulder and a freckled 
back, with trousers so badly shattered that two hands 
could hardly hold them together, — as Mr. Pennington 
expressed it, Bud looked like a second-hand boy. 

c. The following description of a coyote, by Mark 
Twain, leaves just one impression. What is it ? 

The coyote is a long, slim, slick and sorry-looking 
skeleton, with a gray wolf-skin stretched over it, 
a tolerably bushy tail that forever sags down with a 
despairing expression of forsakenness and misery, 
a furtive and evil eye, and a long, sharp face, with a 
slightly lifted lip and exposed teeth. He has a general 
slinking expression all over. The coyote is a living, 
breathing allegory of Want. He is always hungry. 
He is always poor, out of luck, and friendless. The 
meanest creatures despise him, and even the flies 
would desert him for a velocipede. He is so spiritless 
and cowardly that even while his exposed teeth are 
pretending a threat, the rest of his face is apologizing 
for it. And he is so homely ! — So scrawny, and 
ribby, and coarse-haired, and pitiful. 

When any description gives one clear picture or feeling, 
we say it has unity — oneness. 



282 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

XL WRITING DESCRIPTIONS WITH 
FEELING 

Write descriptions suggested by the following 
introductions, putting in only such things as help 
to produce the feeling you have about the object: 

a. There he stood in the center of us fellows, all 
safe and sound ; but how funny he looked after his 
ducking ! (What made him look " funny " ?) 

b. Mother had put " Jane " away in an old trunk 
in the attic. To-day I was lonely, for I had just come 
home from boarding school, and it seemed as if I had 
no friend left nearer than Clara, two hundred miles 
away. So I went upstairs and looked at the things I 
loved when a little child. And there was " Jane." 
(Did she look as you fancied her ?) 

c. We were now ready to start ; but where was 
Bobby ? A long search discovered him, but what a 
sight ! 

d. My dear puppy, four months old, had got the 
Teddy bear off the chair, and when I found them — 

e. " Jack " was not very large, but he always en- 
joyed an encounter with his neighbors. This had been 
an evil day for " Jack." 

/. It was a bitter defeat. When I reached home, 
I did not want to talk to any one ; all I wished was 
my own little room. Some days it seemed poor and 
cheap ; but to-day it was dear. (Tell what made it 
such a comfort ; the chair, the pictures, the bed, the 
table, everything.) 



DIFFERENT VIEWPOINTS 283 

g. There must have been many experiences in your 
own real life when you have seen something which 
caused you great emotion. Tell one of them. 

XII. DIFFERENT VIEWPOINTS 

The same object may be described truthfully but differ- 
ently from different viewpoints. 

The following subjects may be described from 
very different mental viewpoints. Whichever 
viewpoint you choose, stick to it consistently 
throughout your description : 

a. Johnny is a boy 6 years old. He has red curly 
hair, blue eyes, a large mouth, freckled cheeks and a 
loud voice. His clothes are not always clean and are 
often torn. 

Write a description of Johnny as his mother 
sees him, or as a neighbor, who hates boys, sees 
him. 

b. Grandmother, Sister Nell, Tom, and little May 
went for a vacation to the river. Grandmother loved 
the peace, the lulling ripples, the quiet murmur, the 
onward flow of the river. Sister Nell loved the beauty 
— the color, the cloud and tree reflections, the bays, 
the water lilies. Tom liked the sports — swimming, 
fishing, boating, aquaplaning. Little May was afraid 
of the water — the sudden storms, the swift currents, 
the hidden rocks, the loneliness. Each writes a letter 
describing the river. 



284 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Write a letter from the viewpoint of one of the 
visitors to the river. Do not sign your letter, 
but read it aloud to the class and let them deter- 
mine from the mental viewpoint of the writer 
which one of the four people you represent. 

XIII. SUBJECTS FOR DESCRIPTIONS 

Before describing one of these subjects, make a 
list of the things that one might like about it, 
also of the things that one might dislike. Be care- 
ful in the choice of words, adjectives, and verbs 
expressive of likes and dislikes. 

(i) A Walk in the Rain. 

(2) A Cold Morning in Winter. 

(3) A Summer Day. 

(4) A Picnic. 

(5) A Ride in an Automobile. 

(6) Diving. 

(7) A Rainy Sunday. 

(8) An Open Fire. 

(9) Camping. 

(10) Sleeping Out-of-Doors. 

(11) Fishing. 

(12) A Dog (or any other household pet). 

(13) White Mice. 

(14) A Horse. 

(15) A Person. 

(16) A Room. 

(17) A Farmhouse. 

(18) A Circus Clown. 



DESCRIPTION IN A STORY 285 

XIV. DESCRIPTION IN A STORY 

An important part of a good story is descrip- 
tion. We always wish to know how the persons 
and places in a story looked ; therefore the writers 
tell us. But they do not tell us all at once. You 
will find just a sentence or two in one place, and 
a little further on a little more description. De- 
scriptions are given here and there, as needed, so 
that we can see the people or places as they change 
from time to time. 

a. Below is a selection from a good story. 
Find all the bits of description and tell how 
they help the story : 

She stood on the other side of the garden fence, and 
regarded me gravely as I came down the road. Then 
she said, " Hi-o ! " and I responded " Hullo ! " and 
pulled up somewhat nervously. 

She began the conversation, while I hopped back- 
wards and forwards over the ditch, feigning a careless 
ease. 

" Saw you in church on Sunday," she said ; " only 
you looked different then. All dressed up, and your 
hair quite smooth, and brushed up at the sides, and 
oh, so shiny ! What do you put on it to make it 
shine like that ? Don't you hate having your hair 
brushed ? " She ran on, without waiting for an 
answer. " How your boots squeaked when you came 
down the aisle ! When mine squeak, I walk in all the 
puddles till they stop. Think I'll .get over the fence." 



286 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

This she proceeded to do in a business-like way, 
while, with my hands deep in my pockets, I regarded 
her movements with a silent interest, as those of some 
strange animal. 

" I was watching you as you came along the road," 
she said presently, " and you had your head down and 
your hands in your pockets, and you weren't throwing 
stones at anything, or whistling, or jumping over 
things ; and I thought perhaps you'd been scolded, 
or got a stomach-ache." 

" No," I answered shyly, " it wasn't that. Fact 
is, I was — I often — but it's a secret." 

There I made an error in tactics. That enkindling 
word set her dancing round me, half beseeching, half 
imperious. " Oh, do tell it to me ! " she cried. " You 
must ! I'll never tell any one else at all, I vow and 
declare I won't ! " 

Her small frame wiggled with emotion, and with 
imploring eyes she jigged impatiently just in front of 
me. Her hair was tumbled bewitchingly on her 
shoulders, and even the loss of a front tooth — a loss 
incidental to her age — seemed but to add a piquancy 
to her face.* 

If you are interested in this story, you can find 
it all in Dream Days, by Kenneth Grahame. 

b. Much interest could be added to the follow- 
ing story by bits of description. Will you make 
what additions you think needed to help it along ? 
Some blanks have been left for you to fill. 

* Copyright by John Lane Company. 



DESCRIPTION BY COMPARISONS 287 

One day, two spaniels were trotting down 

the street, side by side. (How did they look ?) A 
parrot (Where was she and how did she look ?) called 
out, " Sic 'em ! " They looked over their shoulders 
(What did their eyes say to each other ?) and trotted 
on. Again Polly hissed out, " Sic 'em ! " This time 
they turned round, and went straight to Polly. (What 
did they do to her ? and how did she look when they 
were through ?) Once again two friendly spaniels 
were trotting down the street side by side, while 
Polly, , said to herself, " I guess I talk too much." 

c. Write a story in which you need three 
characters. One of them may be an animal. 
As each character is introduced, give a good idea 
of how he looks. Then as your story advances, 
put in bits of description to make us see each of 
them clearly. The way a person stands, or holds 
his hands, or does a number of other things 
may tell as much as the fleeting changes in his 
face. 

This story should be the very best you can do, 
using all you have learned in story-telling and 
description. 

XV. DESCRIPTION BY COMPARISONS 

a. In the following quotations, the mullein 
stalk is described by comparing it to something 
else : 



288 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Like a candelabrum with a multitude of branches 
six feet high, and with flower over against flower, rose 
the mullein. 

— Hans Christian Andersen 

To one who knows the mullein and can see its 
resemblance to a branched candlestick, this com- 
parison is most apt; it gives to the common 
plant a new dignity and beauty. But if one has 
not already a good mental picture of the mullein 
and the candelabrum, the comparison does little 
to make the writer's meaning clear. 

Perhaps James Whitcomb Riley's comparison 
for the mullein will be better understood by some 
people. He writes, 

Little Pixy people 

Winged above the walk, 
Pouring from the steeple 

Of a mullein stalk. 

To the Pixy people the mullein stalk seems as 
high as a steeple. 

Comparisons should deal with ideas familiar to the person 
addressed. 

b. A baby's hands, like rosebuds furled, 
Where yet no leaf expands, 
Ope if you touch, though close upcurled, — 
A baby's hands. 

— Algernon Charles Swinburne 



DESCRIPTION BY COMPARISONS 289 

Recall how a baby keeps his hands tight shut 
(" furled "), not one little finger stretched out (" no 
leaf expands"). They will open ("ope") if you 
touch them, just as you can force open the leaves 
of a rosebud. 

Is this a good comparison ? 

Is it generally familiar ? 

Does the writer make clear his idea ? 

Is his comparison interesting or beautiful ? 

c. The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold; 
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the 

sea, 
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 

Like the leaves of the forest when summer is 

green, 
That host with their banners at sunset were seen ; 
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn hath 

blown, 
That host on the morrow lay withered and strown. 

— Byron 

While many who read the comparison in the 
first line, likening the coming of the Assyrian to a 
wolf's attack on the sheepfold, may have never 
seen a wolf, yet all have read and heard many 
stories of wolves attacking sheep. We know that 
the wolf is a fierce, cruel enemy. 

Is this first comparison, therefore, good ? Can 



290 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

we understand it ? Does it make the author's 
meaning clearer or more interesting ? 

The second comparison is found in lines 3 and 
4. The glitter ("sheen") of the spears was like 
the light of stars on water, when the water is in 
movement (" the blue wave rolls nightly on deep 
Galilee "). Perhaps none of us has seen the stars 
shining on the sea of Galilee, but most of us have 
seen them shining on some pool, lake, river, or 
ocean, and we know that there is a wavering 
glitter to the reflection when the water is rough 
or disturbed ; this we can well fancy resembles 
the sheen of the spears of a moving army. 

This comparison, then, is good ; it is also most 
beautiful. Read it aloud, fitting the sense and 
rhythm of the words to the author's meaning. 

In the second stanza, to what are the Assyrians 
likened in the first two lines ? In the last two ? 
Are these comparisons good ? Why ? 

d. Study each of the following comparisons to 
determine wherein it is successful, wherein un- 
successful. To do this, ask these questions of 
each : Does it make the thought clearer ? Does it 
interest ? Does it add beauty to the expression ? 

(1) O my children, 

Love is sunshine, hate is shadow. 

— Longfellow 



DESCRIPTION BY COMPARISONS 291 

(2) Great people! As the sands shalt thou become; 
Thy growth is swift as morn when night must 

fade. 

— Shelley 

The author was paying a tribute to America. 
Whom did he mean by "great people"? Why 
did he say they would become as the sands ? What 
is the comparison in the second line ? 

(3) She was lively as a butterfly, curious as a robin- 
redbreast, and dark as a cricket. 

— George Sand 

(4) From many a lonely hamlet, 

Which, hid by beech and pine, 
Like an eagle's nest, hangs on the crest 
Of purple Apennine. 

— Macaulay 

The author compares the tiny village (hamlet) 
high in the Apennine Mountains to an eagle's 
nest. Why ? 

e. Find all the comparisons in the following 
poem : 

To a Little Girl 

Her eyes are like forget-me-nots, 

So loving, kind and true ; 
Her lips are like a pink sea-shell 

Just as the sun shines through ; 
Her hair is like the waving grain 

In summer's golden light ; 



292 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

And, best of all, her little soul 
Is, like a lily, white. 

GUSTAV KoBBE 

What flower could the writer have used instead 
of "forget-me-not" ? 

To what else might he have likened her lips ? 
Her hair ? 

/. Write a description of a person ; use ap- 
propriate comparisons. You may write it in 
rhyme if you wish. If you do not find a subject 
to your liking in the following list, choose some 
other one. 

(i) Grandmother. 

(2) Mother. 

(3) Grandfather. 

(4) Father. 

(5) A Friend. 

(6) A Baby. 

(7) Myself. 

(8) A Peculiar Person. 

(9) Sister. 

(10) Brother. 

(11) Uncle. 

(12) Aunt. 

(13) A Postman. 

(14) A Clerk. 

(15) A Doctor. 

(16) A Neighbor. 

(17) An Official. 

(18) A Policeman. 






CHAPTER TEN 

PHRASES; PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS, INTER- 
JECTIONS; CLAUSES 

I. WHAT A PHRASE IS 

Sometimes, in place of single words, groups of 
words are used to modify nouns or pronouns. 

a. Compare the modifiers in the following sen- 
tences : 

The blacksmith was a strong man. 

The blacksmith was a man of great strength. 

He lived here. 

He lived in this place. 

The group of words " of great strength " modi- 
fies the noun "man," just as the adjective "strong" 
does. "In this place," like the adverb "here," 
modifies "lived." 

b. What groups of words in the following sen- 
tences are used as adjectives ? 

(i) The boy near the door is my brother. 

(2) The boy with the sled is my brother. 

(3) The boy in the boat is my brother. 

(4) The boy under the tree is my brother. 

293 



294 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(5) The boy at my right is my brother's friend. 

(6) The boys of America are loyal. 

Does any one of these groups of words used as 
a modifier contain a subject and a predicate ? 

A group of related words used as part of a sentence, and 
not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a Phrase. 

II. ADJECTIVE AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES 

A phrase used as an adjective, to modify a noun or a 
pronoun, is called an Adjective Phrase. 

a. Change the adjectives in italic in the follow 
ing sentences to adjective phrases : 

(1) Those boys are in a dangerous place. 

(2) What a comfortable feeling this home gives! 

(3) One courageous deed inspires others. 

A phrase used as an adverb, to modify a verb, an 
adjective, or an adverb, is called an Adverbial Phrase. 

b. Name the adverbs in the following sentences : 

(1) The knight bore himself proudly. 

(2) Grimes lived peaceably with all mankind. 

Instead of these adverbs, what phrases are used 
in the following sentences ? 

(3) The knight bore himself with pride. 

(4) Grimes lived at peace with all mankind. 

c. Often a phrase is used as part of a larger 
phrase, as in the following sentence : 

We walked to the end of the way. 



USING PHRASES 295 

The adverbial phrase to the end of the way 
contains the adjective phrase of the way, modifying 
the noun end. 



III. USING PHRASES 

What phrase is set off by commas in each of 
these sentences ? Could it be omitted ? 

The eagle, perched on a high crag, fears no animal. 
The wide-spreading branches, overhanging the path, 
gave abundant shade. 

Seated on a stone, he waited for the car. 
It is food, of course, that he wants. 

Phrases that might be omitted, or that interrupt the 
natural movement of the sentence, are usually set off by 
commas. 

a. Limit the meaning of the following words 
by using with them modifying phrases : 

Clouds . Walk . Good . 

A house . Write . Easy . 

b. Compose sentences in which you use the 
following groups of words as adjective phrases, 
and tell what each phrase modifies : 

(1) on the wall (5) at the corner 

(2) near the door (6) across the street 

(3) in the park (7) of gold 

(4) by the path (8) through the woods 



296 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

c. Compose sentences in which you use the 
following groups of words as adverbial phrases. 
Tell what each phrase modifies : 

(i) during vacation (5) up the hill 

(2) after dinner (6) down the street 

(3) without help (7) before the storm 

(4) in the moonlight (8) with pleasure 

d. Which of the following sentences do you 
think sounds best ? 

(1) Islands of emerald float on purple seas. 

(2) Emerald islands float on seas of purple. 

(3) Emerald islands float on purple seas. 

(4) Islands of emerald float on seas of purple. 

A poet used the first sentence. 

Before deciding whether to use a word or a 
phrase, consider which sounds better and which 
more nearly expresses the thought you have in 
mind. 

e. Recast the following sentences, changing each 
italicized word to a phrase. Tell whether the 
phrases are adjective or adverbial: 

(1) Here once the embattled farmers stood. 

(2) Strong, ambitious, and well, I early went to London. 

(3) There I soon found myself penniless and friendless. 

(4) Presently a kind-hearted man who had seen me 
somewhere gave me work daily. 

f. Point out the phrases in the following selec- 
tion, and tell what each phrase modifies : 



PREPOSITIONS 297 

The December sun shone clear and cold upon the 
city. It shone upon the rich and the poor alike. It 
shone into the homes of the wealthy on the avenues 
and in the uptown streets, and into courts and alleys 
hedged in by towering tenements down town. It 
shone upon throngs of busy holiday shoppers that 
went in and out at the great stores, carrying bundles 
big and small, all alike filled with Christmas cheer and 
kindly messages from Santa Claus. 

— Jacob A. Rus 

IV. PREPOSITIONS 

The airplane flew over the clouds. 
The airplane flew under the clouds. 
The airplane flew among the clouds. 
The airplane flew beside the clouds. 
The airplane flew before the clouds. 
The airplane flew after the clouds. 
The airplane flew toward the clouds. 
The airplane flew from the clouds. 
The airplane flew past the clouds. 
The airplane flew through the clouds. 
The airplane flew near the clouds. 

The words in italic tell the relation between 
the clouds and the flying of the airplane. Each 
gives a different picture of the airplane's flight. 
Each is used with the noun cloud to show its re- 
lation to the verb flew. 

A word used with a noun or a pronoun to show its relation 
to some other word is called a Preposition. 



298 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

A phrase consisting of a preposition and its substantive, 
with or without modifiers, is called a Prepositional Phrase. 

Most phrases are prepositional phrases ; and 
prepositional phrases are nearly always either 
adjective or adverbial phrases. 

a. Mention as many prepositions as you can 
that might be used in each of the following blanks : 

(i) The squirrel ran a tree. 

(2) The book is the table. 

(3) The boy you is my brother. 

(4) Tom went the house. 

(5) The railroad runs the hill. 

b. The italic words in the following paragraph 
are prepositions. Point out the noun or pronoun 
with which each preposition is used, and the other 
word to which relation is shown, as on page 297 : 

At sunrise the army of the Nabob, pouring through 
many openings of the camp, moved toward the grove 
in which the English lay. Forty thousand infantry, 
armed with firelocks, pikes, swords, bows and arrows, 
were spread over the plain. They were accompanied 
by fifty pieces of ordnance of the largest size, each 
tugged by a long team of white oxen, and each pushed 
by an elephant. Some smaller guns, under European 
officers, were more dangerous to the English. The 
force which Clive led against this multitude numbered 
only three thousand. 

— Macaulay : Essay on Lord Clive (Adapted) 



STUDYING PREPOSITIONS 299 

V. STUDYING SENTENCES FOR PREPOSI- 
TIONS 

a. Point out the prepositions in the following 

sentence : 

At the doorway of his wigwam 
Sat the ancient arrow maker. 

At is a preposition because it shows the relation 
between the noun doorway and the verb sat. 
The ancient arrow maker "sat at the doorway." 
The prepositional phrase "at the doorway" is 
adverbial, modifying "sat." 

Of is a preposition because it shows the relation 
between the noun wigwam and the noun doorway. 
The prepositional phrase "of his wigwam" is an 
adjective phrase modifying " doorway." 

In the same way point out the prepositions in 
the following sentences ; show why they are 
prepositions, and tell how the prepositional phrases 
are used : 

(1) John Burns stood at his cottage door. 

(2) He rested in the shade of his peaceful vine. 

(3) He saw his fields covered with the ripening har- 
vest and dotted with his cattle, feeding on the abun- 
dant grass or drinking the water of the clear streams 
that wound through the meadows. 

b. Point out the prepositions and their sub- 
stantives in the following selection: 



300 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

The torrents of Norway leap down from their moun- 
tain homes with plentiful cataracts, and run brief but 
glorious races to the sea. The streams of England 
move smoothly through green fields and beside ancient, 
sleepy towns. The Scotch rivers brawl through the 
open moorland and flash along steep Highland glens. 
The rivers of the Alps are born in icy caves, from which 
they issue forth with furious turbid waters. The 
mighty rivers of the West roll their yellow floods 
through broad valleys, or plunge down dark canons. 
The rivers of the South creep under dim arboreal 
archways heavy with banners of waving moss. 

— Henry van Dyke 

VI. PRONOUNS WITH PREPOSITIONS 

Good writers and speakers never use the nominative 
forms of pronouns with prepositions. They use instead the 
objective forms me, us, him, her, them, whom. 

For example, good writers and speakers would 
say, "All have gone except you and me." It is 
wrong to say, " All have gone except you and /." 

Though the word "preposition" means "placed 
before," a preposition and its substantive are often 
separated by other words ; and sometimes the 
preposition comes after the substantive : as, 

He came with at least two thousand men. 

What are you looking at? {i.e. At what are you 
looking ?) 

Whom were you speaking to ? {i.e. To whom were 
you speaking ?) 



PRONOUNS WITH PREPOSITIONS 301 

a. Use the correct form of pronoun in each of 
the following sentences, and tell why it is correct : 

/, Me 

(1) Mother wrote to both Barbara and . 

(2) She said she was sending some presents for her 
and . 

(3) Between you and , I can hardly wait to see 

them. 

(4) Nobody knows it except Barbara and . 

We, Us 

(1) Father took a picture of girls sitting in a 

boat. 

(2) Everybody had gone fishing except John and 



(3) had asked him to stay with at the 

camp. 

(4) He said it would be best for both the boys and 

He, Him 

(1) Your cousin thinks you are angry at . 

(2) What is the quarrel between you and ? 

(3) I have never had any quarrel with . 

(4) I will write to both and Aunt Edith. 

She, Her 

(1) Mary was here this morning. (2) wants 

you to go with and Agnes to the game. 

(3) said would call for you, and that you 

and would call for Agnes. 



3 o2 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(4) Cloudy weather will make no difference to either 

or Agnes. 

They, Them 

(1) Our closest friends are the Browns. (2) 

and {we, us) have been close friends for many years. 

(3) Halfway between and {we, us) live the Smiths. 

(4) and {we, us) are very friendly too. 

Who, Whom 

(1) is that for? {i.e. For is that?) 

(2) are you going to give it to? 

(3) shall we call on next? 

(4) shall we ask for? 

(5) are you going to vote for? 

(6) can this letter be from? 

VII. CONJUNCTIONS 

Read the following sentences : 

Wallace and Kenneth are brothers. 
They play in the street or in the park. 
They play noisily, but they never quarrel. 

What word is used to connect the names of the 
brothers ? Where do they play ? What word 
connects the phrases which tell where they play ? 
What two assertions are made in the last sentence ? 
What word connects the two assertions ? 

A word used to connect words or groups of words is called 
a Conjunction. 



CORRELATIVES 303 

a. Point out the conjunctions in the following 
sentences, and tell what they connect : 

(1) Is your dog a setter or a pointer? 

(2) You will be late unless you hurry. 

(3) We called, but they did not answer. 

(4) I stumbled as I was going downstairs. 

(5) Freely we serve because we freely love. 

(6) He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone. 

(7) He deserved to succeed, for he worked hard. 

(8) Because she was kind to them, people loved her. 

(9) As I was going down the street, I met Rob. 
(10) Unless you write it down, you will forget it. 

b. Fill each blank in the following sentences 
with an appropriate conjunction : 

(1) Bessie I are cousins. 

(2) They have bread no butter. 

(3) Is his name Smith Jones? 

(4) Carrie will come it rains. 

(5) Carrie will not come it rains. 

c. Use each of the following conjunctions in a 

sentence : 

if or yet and but 

for since unless although because 

VIII. CORRELATIVES 

Certain words regularly used in pairs are called 
correlatives. The most important and frequently 
used correlatives are the Correlative Conjunctions, 
used in pairs as follows : 



304 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

either or not only but also 

neither nor as so 

whether or both and 

although yet 

a. Read the following sentences, noting that 
when you come upon the first word of the pair, 
you expect the other : 

(i) Either wheat or rye may be used in making bread. 

(2) He neither smokes nor drinks. 

(3) Flattery corrupts both the receiver and the giver. 

— Burke 

(4) Whether it rains or shines, we go. 

(5) Although he is afraid, yet he is not a coward. 

(6) Not only the men, but also the boys enlisted. 

(7) As laws are necessary that good manners may be 
preserved, so there is need of good manners that laws 
may be maintained. 

— Machiavelli 

In using correlatives you must be careful so to 
place each word of the pair that the reader will 
know at once the ideas that you intend to con- 
nect. For example, in the third sentence the 
associated ideas are expressed by the words the 
receiver and the giver, each following one of the 
correlatives in the pair. The following sentence is 
wrong : 

Flattery both corrupts the receiver and the giver. 

This is incorrect because the reader has a 
right to take corrupt, which follows both, as one 



INTERJECTIONS 305 

of the associated ideas, and naturally expects an- 
other corresponding idea, like deceives ; as, 
Flattery both corrupts and deceives. 
In the sentence above, what parts of speech are 
receiver and giver? What part of speech is cor- 
rupts ? 

Ideas connected by correlatives should be expressed by 
the same part of speech. 

Test each of the sentences above to see whether 
this rule is observed. 

b. Make sentences using each of the above 
pairs of correlatives. Be careful about placing 
the correlatives to indicate correctly the ideas 
that you wish to associate. 

IX. INTERJECTIONS 

Read the following sentences : 

Ouch ! I have cut myself. 
Bravo ! that was well done. 

In these sentences, the words "ouch" and 
"bravo" are thrown in to express sudden or 
strong feeling. 

A word used to express sudden or strong feeling is called 
an Interjection. 

An interjection is naturally followed by an 
exclamation point. 



306 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

a. Point out the interjections in the following 
sentences : 

(i) Ah! there she comes. 

(2) Hurrah! the game is ours. 

(3) Oh! I have spilled my ink. 

(4) Pshaw! there goes the bell. 

(5) And lo! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. 

Interjections are used for emphasis in expressing 
strong or unusual feelings ; they should, therefore, 
be used sparingly, to avoid overemphasis. A 
mountain peak standing alone attracts the atten- 
tion at once. If, however, all the surrounding 
country were raised to the same level as the 
peak, nothing would stand out. Too frequent use 
of the interjection destroys the element of the 
unexpected or unusual. 

X. SUMMARY OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 

All the words in our language are included in 
the eight kinds of words called the Parts of Speech. 
It is very important to distinguish them. 

Nouns. Words used as names. 

Pronouns. Words used instead of nouns. 

Adjectives. Words used to modify nouns or 
pronouns. 

Adverbs. Words used to modify verbs, adjectives, 
or other adverbs. 



SUMMARY OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH 



307 



Verbs. Words used to assert. 

Prepositions. Words used to show the relation 
between a substantive and some other word. 

Conjunctions. Words used to connect words 
or groups of words. 

Interjections. Words used to express sudden or 
strong feeling. 

Substantive is a common term for a noun, a pro- 
noun, and any other word used to denote some- 
thing about which the speaker is thinking. 

a. Classify the words in the following sentences. 
You may write them in columns, with the names 
of the parts of speech at the top : thus, 



Int. 



Pro. 


Adj. 


V. 


Adv. 


Prep. 


Conj. 















(1) An honest man is the noblest work of God. 

(2) Custom reconciles us to everything. 

(3) How blessings brighten as they take their flight! 

(4) Fine manners need the support of fine manners 
in others. 

(5) Hardship, want, and weakness have their uses 
and may be called real benefits. 

b. It must not be supposed that the same word 
is always the same part of speech. Examine, for 
instance, the use of "iron" in the following 
sentences : 



308 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Iron is heavy. 

An iron kettle hung on the crane. 

Laundresses iron clothes. 

What is "iron" in the first sentence? Why? 
In the second sentence ? Why ? In the third 
sentence ? Why ? 

c. Tell to what part of speech each word in 
italic belongs : 

(i) The sun shines on rich and poor alike. He is a 
rich man, but a poor scholar. 

(2) Farmers till the soil. Look in the till. Stay 
till the bell rings. Stay till the next train. 

(3) Do not lose a second. I second your motion. 
She won second prize. You come second. 

(4) We walked about. What did you talk about? 
We talked about golf. About a dozen girls were there. 

(5) The tops of many mountains are above the clouds. 
The captain went above. He rooms on the floor above. 

(6) He ran fast. He was a. fast runner. They fa st 
twice a week. This fast lasted forty days. 

(7) The house still stands. All is still. A still 
small voice. Alcohol is made in a still. With his 
name the mothers still their babes. 

d. Use each of the following words in a sentence 
first as a noun, then as an adjective, then as a verb : 

spring light sound steel 

e. Use each of the following words first as an 
adverb, then as a preposition : 

about behind down up 



WHAT A CLAUSE IS 309 

XL WHAT A CLAUSE IS 

Compare the following sentences : 

I awoke at sunrise. I awoke when the sun rose. 

In each of these sentences "awoke" is modified 
by a group of related words, which must be taken 
together. "At sunrise" is an adverbial phrase, 
consisting of the preposition "at" and its sub- 
stantive "sunrise." 

"When the sun rose" is a group of related 
words consisting of a subject, "the sun," a predi- 
cate, "rose," and a connecting word, "when." 

A group of words used as part of a sentence, and contain- 
ing a subject and a predicate, is called a Clause. 

A clause used as an adjective, to modify a noun or a pro- 
noun, is called an Adjective Clause. 

A clause used as an adverb, to modify a verb, an ad- 
jective, or an adverb, is called an Adverbial Clause. 

Other examples of modifying clauses are : 

(Adjective) She met a girl whose eyes were blue. 
(Adverbial) Learn while you are young. 

Phrases and clauses are alike in being groups 
of related words used as parts of sentences. They 
differ in this : a clause contains a subject and a 
predicate, a phrase does not. 

Who, which, what, and that are often used as the 
subjects of clauses. 



310 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

XII. USING CLAUSES 

Clauses should usually be set off by commas. 

When I zvas a bachelor, I lived by myself. 
Water, which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, is a 
necessity of life. 

Exception. When the clause is very short, or 
necessary to the meaning, it is usually not set off 
by commas. Thus: "Make hay while the sun 
shines " ; " The pursuit did not cease until the 
thief was caught"; "Water that is stagnant is un- 
wholesome." 

The use or omission of the comma is often a 
matter of judgment, to be determined by the 
requirements of clearness. For instance, in the 
short sentence, " Whatever is, is right," the comma 
is used to show that the first " is " must be taken 
with what precedes it. In the short sentence, 
"Just as I awoke, the clock struck six," the 
comma is used to guard the reader against taking 
" the clock " with the verb " awoke." The comma 
shows that " awoke " ends a clause. 

a. Insert in the following sentences the clauses 
that follow them : 

(i) People are trusted, (who pay their debts) 

(2) He is not always brave, (that is strong) 

(3) He is sure to fall, (who climbs too high) 



USING CLAUSES 311 

(4) The boy has caught a large trout, (whom you 
saw) 

(5) The bicycle stood by the wall. (on which he 
rode) 

b. Limit the meaning of the words in italic in 
the following sentences by supplying modifying 
clauses. Point out the subject and the predicate 
in each of the clauses that you supply : 

(1) Children are happy. 

(2) The train has just come. 

(3) He came. 

(4) The book is interesting. 

(5) He is not to be trusted. 

c. Compose sentences in which you use the fol- 
lowing groups of words as adjective clauses. Tell 

what each clause modifies : 

• 

(1) who came to-day (3) that sits in the next seat 

(2) from which we read (4) to whom I wrote 

d. Compose sentences in which you use the 
following groups of words as adverbial clauses. 
Tell what each clause modifies : 

(1) until he was twelve (3) while the storm raged 

(2) before the bell rings (4) where the grass was green 

e. Change the following sentences, using single 
words or phrases instead of the modifying clauses : 

(1) He was welcome wherever he went. 

(2) Things that are beautiful are ennobling. 



3 i2 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(3) Boys that may be trusted are easily found. 

(4) I will go where you go. 

(5) I like to walk when the moon is shining. 

f. Change the following sentences, using clauses 
instead of the italicized words and phrases. 
Point out the subject and the predicate in each 
modifying clause, and tell what the clause modifies: 

(1) She has a walking doll. 

(2) He listened to her every word. 

(3) After dinner we are going for a picnic. 

(4) At noon they go home for luncheon. 

(5) An honest man never lies. 

g. Change the following words and phrases into 
equivalent clauses. Use the clauses in interesting 
sentences of your own : 

leafless industrious your in youth .after school 



XIII. STUDYING SENTENCES FOR CLAUSES 
Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. 

In this sentence " that findeth wisdom " is an 
adjective clause, because it modifies the noun 
"man," and contains a subject, "that," and a 
predicate, "findeth wisdom." 

In the same way study the clauses in the follow- 
ing sentences : 



STUDYING SENTENCES FOR CLAUSES 313 

(1) Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

(2) God helps those who help themselves. 

(3) Make hay while the sun shines. 

(4) A book is a friend whose face never changes. 

(5) Robert of Lincoln's Quaker wife 

Broods in the grass while her husband sings. 

(6) The moon, that once was round and full, 
Is now a silver boat. 

(7) My heart leaps up when I behold 
A rainbow in the sky. 

(8) A frail little old woman, loaded with bundles 
of every size and shape, fell as she was stepping from a 
street car. 

(9) A little crippled boy playing in the street 
cried out as a swift automobile bore down upon him. 

XIV. MISUSED PREPOSITIONS 

a. Do not say off of. "Of " is not needed after 
" off." Say, " He stepped off the platform." 

b. Into implies motion, in does not. A man is 
in a room after he has walked into it. 

c. From is the proper preposition after different. 
Say, "He is different from his brother" (not than). 

d. Between is used of two, among of more 
than two : as, " Between two boys ; among ten 
boys." 

e. Wait for means await: as, "I will wait for 
you." Wait on means attend: as, "The servant 
waited on us." 



CHAPTER ELEVEN 

SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES; 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

I. SIMPLE SENTENCES DEFINED 

Examine the following sentences : 

Subject Predicate 



The horses took fright. 

The horses and ) , , . . . 

, , > took tnght. 

the cattle j & 

^i i f took fright and 

1 he horses { & 



ran away. 
The horses and 1 f took fright and 



the cattle j } ran away. 
Each of these sentences, you observe, contains 
only one subject and one predicate, though several 
of the subjects and predicates are compound. 

A sentence which contains only one subject and one 
predicate, either of which may be compound, is called a 
Simple Sentence. 

In a simple sentence with compound subject or 
predicate, all the subject substantives belong to 
all the verbs, and all. the verbs belong to all the 
subject substantives. 

Simple thoughts should be expressed in simple sentences. 
314 



SIMPLE SENTENCES 315 

Commands are often given in sentences of 
single words ; as, " Jump ! " " Stop ! " In such 
sentences, the single word is the predicate ; the 
subject is always the person or persons to whom 
the command is given. The subject is under- 
stood ; it does not need to be expressed. 

Simple explanations and directions should usu- 
ally be given in simple sentences. Here are 
directions for making stuffed dates. Notice that 
each sentence has the form of a command ; the 
subject, in each case you, is understood. 

Make a cut the entire length of the dates and remove 
the stones. Fill the cavities with cream cheese and 
chopped almonds. Shape in the original form. Roll 
in soft sugar. 

a. Give directions (1) for doing or making some- 
thing, (2) for playing a game, or (3) for going to 
a certain place. 

II. SIMPLE SENTENCES AS TOPIC 
SENTENCES 

Simple Sentences make good topic sentences, presenting 
the topic of the paragraph simply and concisely. 

Stranger, the land is mine. 
It is the Indian Summer. 

I spent a great deal of time and pains to make a 
bookcase. 



316 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

All the above topic sentences, taken from para- 
graphs quoted in Chapter Three, are simple sen- 
tences. 

Read the other quoted paragraphs in Chapter 
Three, and note which topic sentences are simple 
sentences. 

Here are some topic sentences taken from a set 
of rules for reading: 

Stand or sit in a good position. 

Hold the book properly. 

Keep the eye and mind in advance of the tongue. 

Think the thoughts and feel the emotions. 

a. Enlarge one of the above topic sentences 
into a paragraph, telling just how to carry out the 
direction properly. 

b. Write a simple topic sentence and enlarge 
upon it, making a paragraph. 

III. SIMPLE SENTENCES FOR QUICK OR 
EXCITED ACTION 

The following sentences are spoken by a man 
pursued by wolves. They are addressed to his 
driver. 

They are after us. Get ready your musket and 
pistols. I will do the same. We may yet escape. 
Drive on ! 

These short simple sentences express the haste 
of the men. 



SIMPLE SENTENCES 317 

Here are a few lines from the account of a sea- 
fight, by A. Conan Doyle. Observe the effective- 
ness of the short simple sentences in expressing 
the speed and fierceness of the fighting. 

" Well struck, my lord ! Well struck, Aylward ! 
See to Black Simon ! How he storms among the ship- 
men ! But the Spade Beard is a gallant warrior. 
He rallies his men upon the forecastle. He hath slain 
an archer. Ha ! my lord is upon him. Look to it, 
Alleyne ! See to the whirl and glitter of it ! " 

" Sir Nigel is down ! " cried the squire. 

" Up ! " roared John. " It was but a feint. He 
bears him back. He drives him to the side. . . . 
Ah, they cry for mercy ! Down goes the red cross ! " 

When quick or excited action is to be expressed, short 
simple sentences are usually best. 

a. Write a paragraph of short simple sentences 
describing one of the following subjects : 

(1) An Exciting Chase. 

(2) An Accident. 

(3) A Daring Rescue. 

(4) The Climax of a Game. 

(5) A Race. 

First, write the topic sentence. Make the 
sentences that follow lead to a climax. Note 
the climax above, "Down goes the red cross!" 
The fall of the flag bearing the red cross marks 
the end of the conflict. 



318 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

IV. SIMPLE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES 
TO DENOTE SUSPENSE 

" Will they do it ? Dare they do it ? Who is 
speaking ? What's the news ? " 

You perhaps recognize the above quotation as 
the words of the eager people waiting outside 
Independence Hall, anxious to know the fate of 
the Declaration of Independence. 

To denote uncertainty or suspense, short sentences are 
often put in the form of questions. 

Write some short questions that might be 
spoken by people watching — 

(i) A man trying to rescue another from drowning. 

(2) The efforts of an exhausted swimmer trying to 
reach the shore. 

(3) A runaway horse. 

(4) A child far out on thin ice. 

V. COMPOUND SENTENCES DEFINED 

Read and compare the following, (1) and (2) : 

(1) It was beautiful in the country. It was summer 
time. The wheat was yellow. The oats were green. 
The hay was stacked up in'the green meadow. 

(2) It was beautiful in the country ; it was summer 
time ; the wheat was yellow ; the oats were green ; 
the hay was stacked up in the green meadow. 

— Hans Christian Andersen 



COMPOUND SENTENCES 319 

How many sentences in (1) ? With what kind 
of letter does each sentence begin ? With what 
mark of punctuation does each sentence end ? 

How does (2) differ from (1) in capitals ? in 
punctuation ? Is there any difference in words ? 

The five simple sentences under (1) have been 
put into a single compound sentence, (2). 

Each of the five simple sentences, when put into 
the one compound sentence, becomes a clause. 

A clause, you remember, is a group of words 
containing a subject and a predicate and used as 
part of a sentence. 

Every one of the clauses of the above compound 
sentence (2) is complete in itself and could stand 
alone ; hence, each is called an Independent Clause. 

A sentence containing two or more independent clauses 
is called a Compound Sentence. 

VI. THE USE OF COMPOUND 
SENTENCES 

a. Why put the five independent statements, 
at foot of page 318, into a single sentence? 
Because taken together they express a single 
thought — the beauty of the country. It was 
that one thought, not live separate thoughts about 
the country, that the author wished to make stand 
out clearly. 



320 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

He shows the closeness of the connection of 
these statements by using between them the semi- 
colon, which separates less than the period. 
When the independent clauses of a compound 
sentence are even more closely connected, then 
a comma, rather than a semicolon, is used. Here 
is an illustration : 

The way was long, the wind was cold. — Scott. 

So closely related are these two clauses that 
they are separated only by the comma — the 
least possible mark of separation. 

b. In the following sentence, both semicolon and 
commas are used to separate clauses. Why ? 

Behind him lay the gray Azores, 
Behind the gates of Hercules ; 

Before him not the ghost of shores, 
Before him only shoreless seas. 

— Joaquin Miller 

What is the one thought of this sentence, which 
kept the author from writing it as four simple 
sentences ? What two main parts in the thought ? 
Which clauses express the first part ? Which, the 
second ? What verb is understood in each clause 
following the first ? How did the author indicate 
to the eye the relation between the clauses ? 

c. Put each of the following groups of state- 
ments into a single compound sentence. Use 



COMPOUND SENTENCES 321 

either semicolons or commas to unite clauses, 
and be prepared to explain your choice. Before 
uniting each separate group of statements into a 
single sentence, determine what the one thought 
is that the sentence is to express ; this will help 
you to determine the mark of punctuation to use. 
Be careful of changes in capitalization. 

(1) I galloped. Dirck galloped. We galloped all 
three. 

(2) Mrs. Cratchit made the gravy hissing hot. 
Master Peter mashed the potatoes. Miss Belinda 
sweetened up the apple sauce. Martha dusted the 
hot plates. 

(3) The lightnings flashed nearer and nearer. The 
thunder cracked sharper and sharper. The wind came 
on with a mighty roar. The flood of rain burst upon 
the parched earth. 

(4) Boys drill on mimic battle fields. Girls are 
spinning and weaving cloth for clothes for the soldiers. 
The women have given their jewels to fit out the 
army. The old men are moulding bullets and making 
gun powder. The slaves are raising fodder for the 
cavalry. 

(d) Why would it be wrong to put the follow- 
ing statements into a single compound sentence? 

Diggs belonged to the fifth form. He was large for 
his age. His clothes were always too small. He used 
to run into debt. 

Which two statements might properly be com- 
bined in a compound sentence ? 



322 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

VII. CONJUNCTIONS IN COMPOUND 
SENTENCES 

Punctuation alone shows the fact that the 
clauses of a compound sentence are connected, more 
or less closely. To show the nature of the con- 
nection, conjunctions are used with semicolons or 
commas, or sometimes in place of them. 

The four kinds of connection that may be made 
between the clauses of compound sentences are 
illustrated in the following four groups of sentences. 

(a) The clauses in the following sentences are 
united by addition; one is added to the other 
because of its likeness in meaning, or because it 
carries on the same line of thought. The con- 
junction and is used to show addition. 

(i) The bees are humming and the birds are singing. 

(2) Speak kind words and you will hear kind echoes. 

(3) Many free countries have lost their liberty, and 
ours may lose hers. 

How many clauses in each of the above sen- 
tences ? How are thev united in (1) ? in (2) ? in 

(3)? 

(b) In the following sentences the clauses are 
united because of contrast; the thought of one 
clause is contrasted with that of the other. Con- 
junctions frequently used to express contrast are 
but, yet, still, nevertheless, however. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES 323 

(1) Outside the cold wind blew, but indoors the 
firelight glowed. 

(2) He was a man of peace, yet any tale of injustice 
turned him into a warrior. 

(3) Life is a short day; but it is a working day. 

(4) An obstinate man does not hold opinions, but 
they hold him. 

What is the contrast in thought of the two 
clauses of each of the foregoing sentences ? 

(c) In the following sentences the clauses are 
united because they express cause and effect ; one 
of them is the conclusion of the other. Conjunc- 
tions expressing effect or conclusion are therefore, 
hence, so, consequently. 

(1) You never deceived me, therefore I trust you. 

(2) I planted no seeds, consequently I have no 
flowers. 

(3) You do not deny it, so it is true. 

In (1) which clause expresses a cause ? which 
the effect ? In (2) what effect is expressed ? 
What is the cause ? In (3) what is the con- 
clusion ? 

(d) In the following sentences, the clauses are 
united because they express thoughts between 
which one must make a choice. The conjunction 
or is used to suggest a choice. 

(1) It has rained, or some one has watered the lawn. 

(2) Be silent, or say something better than silence. 



324 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

VIII. MAKING COMPOUND SENTENCES 

a. Supply conjunctions between the clauses 
given below. Tell why you use each, as follows : 

She was beautiful she was kind. 

She was beautiful and she was kind. 

I use the conjunction and because I wish to say 
that in addition to being beautiful she was kind. 

(i) Lincoln was homely he was attractive. 

(2) He was earnest he was honest. 

(3) Horace was the best player he was made 

captain of the team. 

(4) He deserved severe punishment we shrank 

from inflicting it. 

(5) He did it purposely he did it accidentally. 

(6) The butterfly played all summer he had no 

food for winter. 

(b) Write a compound sentence in which one of 
the clauses is added to the other. 

Write a compound sentence in which the 
clauses express contrasting thoughts. 

Write a compound sentence in which one clause 
expresses the conclusion or the effect, while the 
other expresses the cause. 

Write a compound sentence between the two 
clauses of which a choice must be made. 

It will help you to look back to Section VII, 
to see what conjunctions you may use, and to see 



COMPOUND SENTENCES 325 

examples of each of the four kinds of compound 
sentences. 

IX. OMITTING CONJUNCTIONS IN 
COMPOUND SENTENCES 

When shall conjunctions be used, when 
omitted, between the clauses of compound sen- 
tences ? This must be learned by observation 
and practice, rather than by rule. In some cases 
a conjunction is necessary; in some cases a con- 
junction is quite out of place ; in some cases 
a conjunction may be used or omitted without 
noticeable change in the expression. 

a. In the following compound sentence, how 
many clauses ? What are the conjunctions show- 
ing the connection between them ? What is the 
nature of the connection shown in each case? 
One of these conjunctions, and only one, might 
be omitted without injury to the sentence ; which 
one is that ? Find out by reading the sentence 
with each conjunction omitted in turn. 

It [the Declaration of Independence] may cost treas- 
ure, and it may cost blood ; but it will stand, and it 
will richly compensate for both. 

— Webster 

b. Is the following sentence better with or 
without the conjunction I Why ? 



326 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

My judgment approves this measure, and my whole 
heart is in it. 

— Webster 

c. In the sentence below, what conjunction 
could you use between the clauses ? Is it better 
with or without the conjunction ? Why ? 

A library is not a luxury ; it is a necessity. 

d. Could any conjunction be used between the 
clauses of this sentence ? 

Be not simply good ; be good for something. 

X. COMPLEX SENTENCES DEFINED 

We have learned that two or more simple sen- 
tences closely connected in thought may be put 
into a single compound sentence; that in doing 
this, each simple sentence becomes an independent 
clause of the compound sentence. 

The sun rose. The earth was filled with beauty. 

These two simple sentences may be turned into 
a compound sentence, as follows : 

The sun rose and the earth was filled with beauty. 
The sun rose ; the earth was filled with beauty. 

But we may make these same simple sentences 
into the following single sentence : 

When the sun rose, the earth was filled with beauty. 



COMPLEX SENTENCES 327 

Now we do not have a compound sentence, 
because only one of the two clauses composing 
it is independent, — that is, can stand alone. 
The first clause, When the sun rose, does not 
express an independent thought ; if written alone, 
one would at once ask, What happened then ? 

This first clause tells when the earth was filled 
with beauty. It is an adverbial modifier of "was 
filled." It is therefore subordinate to the second 
clause and is dependent on it. The principal state- 
ment is made by the second clause, the earth was 
filled with beauty at a time told by the first clause. 

The clause which makes the main statement in a sentence 
is called the Principal Clause. 

A clause used as a subordinate part of a sentence, and 
dependent on the principal clause, is called a Subordinate 
Clause. 

A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is 
called a Complex Sentence. 

A compound sentence may be likened to a 
chain : the clauses are linked together ; if sepa- 
rated, each link remains complete in itself. A 
complex sentence may be likened to a rope : the 
clauses are twisted together like strands ; the 
removal of a strand weakens the rope. 

A subordinate clause should be set off by commas unless 
it is necessary to the sense or very short. 



328 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

XI. CONJUNCTIONS IN COMPLEX 
SENTENCES 

In compound sentences, as we have seen, con- 
junctions are used to show the relation of the 
independent clauses to each other. So in complex 
sentences, conjunctions (and other connecting 
words) are used to show that a clause is sub- 
ordinate, and also to show the nature of its rela- 
tion to the principal clause. 

In the sentence already studied, 

When the sun rose, the earth was filled with beauty, 

the word "when," used as a conjunction, shows 
which clause is subordinate and shows how this 
clause is connected with the principal clause. 

Note that the word "when," though connecting 
the clauses, does not stand between them. When 
subordinate clauses precede the principal clause, 
they carry with them the word which connects 
them in thought with the principal clause : as, 



Connective 


Subordinate Clause 


Principal Clause 


If 


Ethel goes, 


Rob will go. 


Unless 


it rains, 


we shall all go. 



The following are some of the connecting words 
frequently used in complex sentences : 

a. Words denoting time used as conjunctions : 



COMPLEX SENTENCES 329 

when, whenever, while, till, until, since, as, before, 
after. 

(1) When hope is lost, all is lost. 

When is all lost ? What is the principal clause ? 
The subordinate clause ? What is the conjunction ? 

(2) Ichabod's flimsy garments fluttered in the air, as 
he stretched his long lank body over his horse's head. 

When did Ichabod's flimsy garments flutter in 
the air ? Which is the subordinate clause ? Why 
is it subordinate ? What is the conjunction ? 

(3)1 toiled and tugged till I was almost tired to death. 

How long did I toil and tug ? Which is the 
principal clause ? 

(4) Difficulties spur us whenever they do not check us. 

Which is the principal clause ? The subordinate 
clause ? 

b. Words denoting place used as conjunctions : 
where, whence, whither. 

(1) Enjoyment stops where indolence begins. 
Which is the subordinate clause ? Why is it 

subordinate ? What is the conjunction ? 

(2) Whither you go I will go. 

c. Words denoting manner or means used as 
conjunctions : as, how. 

(1) As the twig is bent the tree inclines. 



33o THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

How does the tree incline ? Which clause is 
subordinate ? Why is it subordinate ? 

(2) He does not know how it happened. 

(3) Choose your author as you choose your friend. 

It would be wrong, in the last sentence, to use 
like instead of "as," because good writers do not 
use like as a conjunction. 

d. Words denoting cause used as conjunctions : 
because, as, since, for. 

(1) Because his request was not granted, he left the 
room. 

Which is the principal clause ? 

What was the cause of his leaving the room ? 

(2) Nomadic tribes are almost always robbers, for 
they have to fight for existence. 

Which is the principal clause ? 
Why are nomadic tribes robbers ? 

(3) Since few large pleasures are lent us on a long 
lease, it is wise to cultivate a large undergrowth of 
small pleasures. 

— Mary A. Livermore 

e. Conjunctions denoting condition or purpose, 
and various relations : if, though, although, lest, 
unless, so, than, that {in order that). 

(1) That he might make his appearance before his 
mistress in the true style of a cavalier, he borrowed 
a horse from the farmer. 

— Irving 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 331 

Which is the principal clause ? 
Why did he borrow a horse ? 

(2) Though passion may have strained, it must not 
break our bonds of affection. 

— Lincoln 

(3) A man has no more religion than he acts out in 
his life. — Beecher 

(4) If hard work is not another name for talent, 
it is the best possible substitute for it. 

— Garfield 

(5) I can't do it unless you help me. 

It would be wrong, in the last sentence, to use 
without instead of " unless," because good writers 
never use without as a conjunction. 

XII. RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

Compare the following ways of expressing the 
same thoughts : 

(1) Ralph bought a top. This top he gave to Laura. 

(2) Ralph bought a top which he gave to Laura. 

The last sentence (2) combines the two separate 
thoughts expressed in (1). 

By using the pronoun which instead of this top, 

the two thoughts are expressed in one sentence, 

which is complex because it consists of a principal 

clause, 

Ralph bought a top, 

and a subordinate clause, 

which he gave to Laura. 



332 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

"Which he gave to Laura" is a subordinate 
clause, because it is used like an adjective to 
modify "top." 

A pronoun used to connect a principal and a subordinate 
clause is called a Relative Pronoun. 

A relative pronoun is so called because, though 
standing in a subordinate clause, it relates to a 
substantive in the principal clause. 

The substantive to which a pronoun relates or for which 
it stands is called its Antecedent. 

In the complex sentence just studied, "top" is 
the antecedent of "which." 

• Other examples are given below : 

(i) The man who betrays his country is a traitor. 

Principal clause : "The man is a traitor." 

Subordinate clause : "who betrays his country," 
modifying "man." It tells what man is a traitor. 

Relative pronoun : " who." 

Antecedent: "man." 

(2) I lost the book that you found. 

What two separate thoughts are combined in 
this sentence ? What does the pronoun " that " 
relate to ? 

What tells what book I lost ? Which is the 
principal clause ? The subordinate clause ? What 
word connects the two clauses ? 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS 333 

(3) Behavior is a mirror in which every one shows 
his image. 

— Goethe 

What kind of mirror is behavior ? What are 
the separate thoughts ? What are the two clauses ? 
Which is the subordinate clause ? What is the 
relative pronoun ? its antecedent ? 

(4) What you say is true. 

Separate thoughts : You say it. It is true. 

Relative pronoun : " what." 

What, as a relative pronoun, means that which. 

The words most often used as relative pronouns are who, 
whose, which, what, and that. 

a. Point out the relative pronouns in the follow- 
ing sentences, name the antecedent of each, and 
tell the principal and the subordinate clause in 
each sentence : 

(1) He that is strong is not alway brave. 

(2) A book is a friend whose face never changes. 

(3) Learn the meaning of every new word which 
you hear. 

(4) The boy whose manners you liked is my 
brother. 

(5) The water, which was very clear, gently lapped 
the shore. 

(6) I know that man whom you spoke to. 

(7) We played a new game, the name of which I 
forgot. 



334 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(8) At the corner I met a policeman, who went 
with me. 

(9) He whom thou lovest is sick. 

(10) She recommended a book the name of which 
I had never heard. 

b. Change the following simple sentences into 
complex sentences by changing the italic words or 
phrases into subordinate clauses, each containing 
a relative pronoun : 

(1) Lida has a walking doll. 

(2) We should notice carefully every new word. 

(3) An officer bearing a flag of truce approached from 
the enemy's line. 

(4) The man with the hoe is as necessary in war as 
the man with the gun. 

(5) We have been reading about Ulysses, a Greek 
hero. 

XIII. MAKING COMPLEX SENTENCES 

a. To each of the following statements join a 
subordinate clause by answering the question 
following each : 

(1) I gave the book to the boy. (Which boy ?) 

(2) I feel happy. (When ?) 

(3) I found my knife. (Where ?) 

(4) The music will cease. (How ?) 

(5) The tree died. (Why ?) 

What kind of sentences have you made ? What 
connectives have you used ? 



MAKING COMPLEX SENTENCES 335 

b. To each of the following subordinate clauses 
supply a principal clause. You must decide in 
each case whether the principal clause should 
precede or follow the subordinate clause. 

(1) Unless you are more careful 

(2) Although it was raining hard 

(3) U y° u wm ne ip me 

(4) Lest I forget the place 

(5) That I may be sure of promotion 

(6) As I was walking down the street 

(7) Before you came in 

(8) Since it is impossible for me to go 

(9) Until the sun sets 
(10) How he might succeed 

What kind of sentences have you made ? What 
is the principal clause of each ? 

c. Combine the following groups of statements 
into complex sentences. Think of the relation 
in which you wish the clauses to stand to each 
other, — which to be subordinate and which 
principal ; then choose the connecting word neces- 
sary to express this relation. Be careful not to 
make compound sentences. 

(1) It rained. We stayed at home. 

(2) It stopped raining. The sun came out. 

(3) The birds sing. Spring is here. 

(4) I am happy. The robins have come back. 

(5) Our school won the prize. It has the largest 
building. 



336 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(6) The soldier is a patriot. He died for his country. 

(7) The senator is a patriot. He loves his country. 

(8) I love the modest violet. It grows in the wood. 

Make as many different sentences from each 
group as possible. From the next to the last 
group you might make these : 

The senator who loves his country is a patriot. 
The senator is a patriot because he loves his country. 
When he loves his country, the senator is a patriot. 
If he loves his country, the senator is a patriot. 
Since he loves his country, the senator is a patriot. 
According as he loves his country, the senator is a 
patriot. 

d. Read the following paragraph carefully ; 
then decide which sentences are simple, which 
are complex, and which are compound : 

" (1) As I drew near the house a strange disturbance 
took possession of my mind. (2) I stopped. (3) There 
was nothing to be heard. (4) There was not a breath 
of air to move the leaves. (5) ' What ails me ? ' I 
thought. (6) For ten years I had been coming home 
in this way, and never until now had I known the 
slightest uneasiness. (7) I was not afraid. (8) I had 
never been afraid at night. (9) The sight of a robber 
would have excited my wrath, and I should not have 
hesitated to try conclusions with him. (10) Besides, 
I was armed, (n) I had my revolver with me. (12) I 
did not lay hand to it, however, for I wished to resist 
that influence of dread that was gathering within me." 



TRUE AND ACCURATE SENTENCES 337 

XIV. TRUE AND ACCURATE SENTENCES 

If you are truthful, you never say a thing is 
black when you know it is white. No more 
should you say, "I came home when it rained," if 
you mean, "I came home because it rained." 
Whatever the expression of your thought re- 
quires — whether simple sentences, simple sen- 
tences with compound parts, compound sentences, 
or complex sentences — that you should use. It 
is the thought to be expressed to which you should 
give first attention ; as you determine that, you 
will determine naturally the kind of sentences 
that are best to use. 

In speaking or writing, we should fit sentences to our 
thought so as to express it truly and accurately. 

Here are six simple thoughts : 

(1) It was early morning. 
I was tired. 

I went into the house. 
I lay down on the lounge. 
I read a book. 
I went to sleep. 

Let us look at a few of the many ways in which 
these thoughts may be connected and expressed : 

(2) It was early morning. I was tired. I went into 
the house. I lay down on the lounge. I read a book. 
I went to sleep. 



338 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

What kind of sentences are these ? What is the 
subject, and what the predicate of each ? How- 
uninteresting they are ! This is not only because 
they are so short, but also because there is little 
connection between them, and that little connec- 
tion is not expressed, but must be inferred. 

(3) It was early morning. I was tired and I went 
into the house. Before I lay down on the lounge, I 
read a book. I went to sleep. 

How many sentences here ? What kind of 
sentence is each ? What clauses are independent ? 
What clauses are subordinate ? 

(4) As it was early morning, I was tired. I went 
into the house and lay down on the lounge. Before I 
went to sleep I read a book. 

How many sentences here ? What kind is 
each ? Which clauses are independent and which 
subordinate ? Is the connection well expressed ? 

(5) It was early morning, when I was tired and went 
into the house. I read a book, lay down on the lounge, 
and went to sleep. 

How many sentences ? What kind is each ? 
Which clauses are independent, which subordinate ? 

(6) Although it was early morning, I was tired and 
went into the house, where I lay down on the lounge 
and read a book until I went to sleep. 



PLEASING SENTENCES 339 

How many sentences here ? How many clauses ? 
Which are principal, which subordinate ? 

If you compare the above five ways — ■ (2), (3), 
(4)5 (5)5 an d (6) — of connecting and expressing 
the six simple thoughts given under (1), you will 
see how much the five different ways differ in 
meaning; you will be impressed with the im- 
portance of care in the use of conjunctions. The 
same thought is expressed as a simple sentence, 
a principal clause, and a subordinate clause. For 
example, follow through the first thought — It was 
early morning. In (2) and (3) it is expressed as a 
simple sentence, and stated merely as a fact 
that has no direct connection apparently with 
what follows; in (5) it is a principal clause; in 
(4) and (6) it is a subordinate clause, with sig- 
nificance in one case quite opposed to that in the 
other. Which combination is true and accurate ? 

XV. PLEASING SENTENCES 

When there are several ways of expressing the same 
thoughts with equal truth and accuracy, we should choose 
the most pleasing. 

a. Compare the following ways of expressing 

the same thoughts : 

(1) The rain ceased. The clouds broke. The 
sun shone. A gorgeous rainbow appeared 
in the eastern sky. 



34o THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(2) The rain ceased, the clouds broke, the sun 

shone, and a gorgeous rainbow appeared 
in the eastern sky. 

(3) As the rain ceased, the clouds broke, the sun 

shone, and a gorgeous rainbow appeared 
in the eastern sky. 

Is there any essential difference in the thought 
expressed in (1) and (2) ? Which of the two forms 
of expression do you prefer ? What kind of sen- 
tence is (3) ? This sentence expresses the same 
thought as (1) and (2), only the ceasing of the 
rain is made subordinate, to tell when the clouds 
broke, the sun shone, and the rainbow appeared, 
and to bring these occurrences into prominence. 
Which of the three combinations, (1), (2), or (3), 
do you prefer ? Why ? 

b. Express each of the following groups of 
thoughts in a single complex or compound sen- 
tence. Before doing this, ask yourself in each case 
whether the ideas expressed are of equal im- 
portance, or whether one should be made sub- 
ordinate to the other. 

(1) Sin has many tools. One handle fits them all. 
A lie is that handle. 

(2) You remember the story of the tender-hearted 
man. He placed a frozen viper in his bosom. He was 
stung by it when it thawed. 

(3) I should be glad to go. I have another en- 
gagement. 



SENTENCES TO BE REWRITTEN 341 

(4) Rip Van Winkle approached the village. He 
met a number of people. 

(5) The sunshine kissed the flowers. The winds 
caressed them. 

(6) The passengers held their breath in terror. 
They saw the iceberg bearing down upon them. 

(7) He rode all unarmed. He rode all alone. 

(8) The bushes rustled a little in the thicket. A 
great gray wolf leaped forth. 

(9) He stood looking longingly at the food. He 
dared not touch it. 

(10) The journey was very pleasant. I remember 
it well. 

(11) The sun shone on the trees. Every dewdrop 
sparkled like a diamond. 

XVI. SENTENCES TO BE REWRITTEN 

You have learned three ways of combining 
short statements into longer ones, as follows : 

(1) Making simple sentences with compound 
parts. 

(2) Making compound sentences. 

(3) Making complex sentences. 

As you write your first draft, you may not be 
able to give close attention to sentence structure ; 
hence you should study carefully what you have 
written to see what improvements you can make 
in it. Probably you will find that some short 
sentences ought to be combined in some one of 



342 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

the three ways indicated above ; and you may 
find that some long sentences should be broken 
up into two or more. 

If in the margin of a composition read by your 
teacher, you find Sent, written, you may under- 
stand this to mean that the structure of the sen- 
tence or sentences opposite is not good ; rewrite. 

Read the following, noting where Sent, is written 
in the margin. In each case, Sent, refers to the 
sentences opposite and included within the paren- 
thesis ( ). Rewrite these sentences, combining 
them in what you think is the best way. 

(There was once a little princess. Her father 
was king over a great country. The country was Sent. 
full of mountains. It was full of valleys.) His 
palace was built upon one of the mountains. The 
princess, whose name was Irene, was born there. 

(Her mother was not strong. The princess 
was sent, soon after her birth, to be brought up Sent. 
by country people. She was brought up in a 
large house.) This house which was half castle, 
half farmhouse, stood on the side of another 
mountain, about halfway between its base and 
its summit. 

The princess was a sweet little creature. (Her 
face was fair. It was pretty.) Sent. 

(The ceiling of her nursery was blue with stars 
in it. The stars were like the real stars. They 
were as like the real stars as a painter could make Sent. 
them.) 



CHAPTER TWELVE 

NARRATION 
I. MEANING OF NARRATION 

Telling what has happened is narration. 

The purpose of narration is to give an interesting account 
of an event or a series of events. 

A narrative may be true or imaginary ; it may 
recount what really has happened, or it may re- 
count what the author imagines to have happened. 

A written account of the life of an individual is 
called a biography ; if this account is written by 
the individual himself, it is called an autobiography.* 

A narrative of events with the purpose of explain- 
ing is called history. A brief account of a single 
incident is called an anecdote. 

Narratives that grow out of some one's imagina- 
tion are called fiction. 

Story is a general term applied to all kinds of 
narrative. 

Narrative in order to be good must be clear; 

* " Auto " means " self " ; compare automobile, automatic, autograph. 
Look these words up in the dictionary. 
343 



344 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

it must be forceful; it must move from beginning 
to end ; it must arouse interest at the beginning 
and sustain it to the end. To understand what 
these four characteristics really are, and to learn 
how to put them into your narratives, will require 
much study and practice. 

II. MAKING A NARRATIVE CLEAR 

a. Let us study the following four ways of tell- 
ing a story : 

(i) A hunter took aim at an eagle and hit him in 
the heart. The eagle fell to the ground dead. As 
he turned his head and saw that the arrow was winged 
with one of his own feathers, he said, " How much 
sharper are the wounds made by weapons which we 
ourselves have supplied! " 

How could the eagle turn his head, see, and 
speak after he had fallen to the ground, dead ? 
He might have done these things after he was 
hit by the arrow, and before he died. The story 
lacks clearness because the events are not related 
in proper order. 

Events should be told in the order of time. 

(2) A hunter took aim at an eagle and hit him in the 
heart. As the eagle fell to the ground in the agonies 
of death, he exclaimed, " How much sharper are the 
wounds made by weapons which we have ourselves 
supplied! " 



MAKING A NARRATIVE CLEAR 345 

The events of the story are now related in 
proper order, yet the story is not clear. The 
eagle's exclamation has no meaning, no point. 
There is nothing in the story to indicate that 
the eagle had supplied the weapon ; indeed, the 
weapon itself is not even mentioned. Important 
facts have been omitted. 

To make a narrative clear, all important facts must be 
given. 

(3) A hunter, whose name was John, once took aim 
at an eagle and hit him in the heart. The hunter was 
not usually a good shot, but this time he happened to 
hit the mark. As the eagle turned his head in the 
agonies of death, he saw that the arrow was winged 
with one of his own feathers. It was a large gray, 
white, and black feather such as Indians wear in their 
war bonnets. " How much sharper," said he, " are 
the wounds made by the weapons which we have our- 
selves supplied! " 

The events are now given in proper order and 
nothing of importance is omitted ; still the story 
lacks clearness. Why ? Because too much is 
told ; facts are brought in that are of no im- 
portance in this story. The meaning of the story 
depends not at all upon the name of the hunter, 
the fact that he was "not usually a good shot," 
or the size and color of the feather, which are 
irrelevant; that is, they do not relate to the 



346 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

point. Irrelevant statements only interrupt. They 
distract the attention of the reader from the signifi- 
cant fact of the story — the shooting of the eagle 
with an arrow winged with one of his own feathers. 
To secure clearness, irrelevant facts should be omitted. 

(4) A hunter took aim at an eagle and hit him in 
the heart. As the eagle turned his head in the agonies 
of death, he saw that the arrow was winged with one 
of his own feathers. " How much sharper," said he, 
" are the wounds made by weapons which we our- 
selves have supplied! " 

Now the story is clear : the events are told in 
proper order ; nothing essential is omitted ; noth- 
ing unnecessary is brought in. 

III. STORY OF A PERSONAL EXPERIENCE 

Tell the story of a personal experience, using 
as a title one of the subjects given below, or any 
other that you choose. Aim especially to make 
your narrative clear. This means that you must — 

Tell the events in proper order ; 

Tell all the facts necessary to clear understand- 
ing; 

Tell no irrelevant facts. 

(1) What I Did the First Day I Went to School. 

(2) My First Sunday in Church. 

(3) The Family Joke about Me. 



MAKING A NARRATIVE FORCEFUL 347 

(4) An Accident that Befell Me. 

(5) The Time I Fooled Father. 

(6) The Time Father Fooled Me. 

(7) My First Visit to the Barber. 

(8) My First Visit to the Dentist. 

(9) My Worst Fall. 

(10) When I Ran Away. 

(11) My First Jack-o-lantern. 

(12) An Amazing Occurrence I Saw. 

(13) What Happened when I Took Home my 
Monthly Report. 

(14) The Day I Tore my Clothes. 

(15) When I Lost my Dog. 

(16) My First Circus. 

(17) The Time I Didn't Run for Fun. 

(18) The Time I was Really Hungry. 

(19) The Time I was Frightened. 

(20) When I Nearly Lied. 

IV. MAKING A NARRATIVE FORCEFUL 

Compare the following accounts of the trans- 
fer of New Orleans from French to American 
control after the Louisiana Purchase. 

(1) The French flag was flying from the flagstaff. 
Some one shot off a cannon ; then the French flag was 
hauled down while the American flag was raised. As 
the two flags met about halfway up the flagstaff, 
the people that were handling the flag ropes stopped 
for a minute. Then the cannon was fired again, 
whereupon the French flag was hauled to the ground, 
and the American flag raised to the top of the staff. 



348 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

In the above account the events are given in 
the right order, nothing of importance seems to 
be omitted, and nothing irrelevant included ; the 
narrative is clear, but — compare the following 
account of the same incident. 

(2) A salute from the cannon! The Tri-color of 
France flutters for a moment proudly at the top of the 
flagstaff, then slowly, slowly sinks toward the ground. 
Slowly, slowly a new flag climbs the staff. Halfway 
up the old and the new meet. For a moment they 
mingle in the breeze. Another salute from the cannon ! 
The flags part. Down, down sinks the Tri-color ; up, 
up mounts the new emblem until it reaches the mast- 
head — then, lovingly unfurled by "a proud breeze, 
the Star-spangled banner waves gloriously over all. 

This second account uses the same essential 
facts as the first, and, with the exception of the 
first two statements, presents them in the same 
order. Yet how much more effective is the second 
account ! It is not merely clear, — as clear as the 
first — it is forceful; it makes the reader feel, as 
well as see, the events. How did the author of the 
second account add force to clearness ? 

Compare the opening sentences of the two 
accounts. 

The French flag was flying from the flagstaff. 
What of it ? Isn't that a common and proper 
place for any flag to fly ? The statement is so 



MAKING A NARRATIVE FORCEFUL 349 

commonplace that it fails to arouse our interest. 
It does not make us want to read on to find out 
why the flag was flying there, or what happened. 

A salute from the cannon! 

This short exclamatory sentence — almost as 
abrupt as the cannon shot itself — stirs keen 
interest at once. The salute of a cannon is un- 
usual, given on unusual occasions. What does 
this salute mean ? We are curious to find out, 
so we read on eagerly. 

Compare the body of the two accounts. The 
first makes us see merely two flags as some people 
pull one up and the other down the same flag- 
staff; then the stopping of the flags halfway, 
while the cannon is fired again ; it makes us feel 
nothing. The second account presents two flags 
that seem to feel, that seem to act : at the salute 
of the cannon, the one flutters proudly, then 
sinks slowly, while the other climbs ; they meet, 
like friends ; at the second cannon shot, they 
part; the one sinks and the other mounts until 
it reaches the masthead ; there is no suggestion 
of the ropes, which only distract our attention 
from the sentiment of the occasion. The flags 
hold our interest. We sympathize with the Tri- 
color, that had long fluttered proudly at the top 



350 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

of the flagstaff, as it slowly sinks ; we feel with 
the "new flag" as it slowly climbs the staff to 
take the place of the old. But how much deeper 
is our feeling as we realize that we are wit- 
nessing a drama, not of two personified flags 
merely, but rather of the two great nations that 
they symbolize ! 

Compare the endings of the two accounts. 

. . . the French flag was hauled to the ground, 
and the American flag raised to the top of the staff. 

A most matter-of-fact statement ; no climax, 
scarcely more than a repetition of what has 
already been told in the opening sentences. 

Down, down sinks the Tri-color ; up, up mounts 
the new emblem until it reaches the masthead — 
then, lovingly unfurled by a proud breeze, the Star- 
spangled banner waves gloriously over all. 

Here is climax ; here is culmination of interest 
kept in suspense until the very end ! 

Worthy of note are the contrasting ideas, most 
of them expressed by antonyms, and even the 
punctuation that the writer of the second account 
uses to give his narrative force. Find five pairs 
of antonyms ; also two different marks of punctua- 
tion that help to make the account forceful. 

To be forceful, a narrative should make the reader feel 
as well as see the events. 



A NARRATIVE FROM HISTORY 351 
V. A NARRATIVE FROM HISTORY 

Write a short narrative, clear and forceful, on 
a subject suggested by one of the paragraphs 
given below. 

Tell the events in proper order. 

Omit nothing essential. 

Introduce nothing unnecessary. 

Make the opening sentence interesting. 

Make the story alive ; make it move from be- 
ginning to end. 

End the story with a clear-cut, satisfying 
climax. 

Remember that the production of these effects 
is greatly aided by — 

Contrasting ideas. 

Antonyms. 

Expressive punctuation. 

(1) The British army advanced to undertake the 
siege of Lille, in 1708. The French in retiring across 
the river drew up the long drawbridge. A colonel of a 
British regiment offered a purse of gold to the man 
who succeeded in cutting the chains of the bridge and 
allowing it to drop. Many tried but all were killed 
by the enemy. At last Sergeant Littler volunteered. 
He succeeded but received two wounds. When offered 
the money he refused it, saying, " Sir, I don't want 
the money. I made the attempt for the honor of the 
regiment." For his valor he received a commission. 



352 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

How can you give force to the sentence, "many 
tried but all were killed by the enemy"? Re- 
member that force arouses feeling ; how can you 
make your readers feel ? How were the men 
killed ? Where were the enemy ? What words 
might be used to describe them — wary, watchful, 
vigilant ? 

How did Sergeant Littler succeed ? Can you 
see him swimming the river ? Do you see him 
severing the chains with terrific blows of his ax ? 
Do you see him fall wounded as the drawbridge 
quivers, then drops to form a passage for the 
regiment ? If you can see all this clearly, make 
your readers see it also. 

What did the colonel say when he offered the 
purse ? When he promised the sergeant a com- 
mission ? 

(2) Sir Richard Grenville, with one small ship, 
fought fifty-three Spanish ships. All night the battle 
raged. Many of the Spanish ships were destroyed. 
Sir Richard was wounded and his men surrendered. 
The Spanish officers praised him for his bravery, but 
he answered, " I have fought for my Queen and Faith. 
I have only done my duty. With a joyful spirit I die." 

(3) At the sacking of the Summer Palace, Pekin, 
in i860, by the British and French troops, an enormous 
amount of booty was secured. After the war a British 
officer was talking over the affair with a Chinese 
official. The Chinaman expressed surprise that the 



DIRECT QUOTATIONS IN NARRATION 353 

troops had left the lions at the entrance gates. The 
officer replied that there was no time to carry off such 
heavy pieces of brass. To his surprise he learned 
from the Chinaman that the lions were of solid gold. 

Beginning with the Chinaman's expression of 
surprise that the lions were left, give the conversa- 
tion between the two men. How did the officer 
feel when he learned that he had left a fortune 
behind because he did not know brass from gold ? 
Bring out his feeling forcibly in your story. 

(4) Sir Philip Sidney and the Wounded Soldier. 

(5) The Death of Nathan Hale. 

(6) The Capture of Quebec and the Last Moments 
of Montcalm and Wolfe. 

(7) How Ethan Allen Took Fort Ticonderoga. 

If none of the above suggestions appeals to you, 
select some other striking, dramatic event from 
history and write an account of it. 

VI. THE USE OF DIRECT QUOTATIONS IN 
NARRATION 

Direct quotation often helps to make a narrative clear 
and forcible. 

The two following stories illustrate this. 

(a) The Escape of the Douglas 

(1) By a very clever ruse the Earl of Douglas es- 
caped after the battle of Poictiers. (2) Among his 



354 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

fellow captives was Sir William Ramsay, who instantly 
realized how much Douglas's escape would mean to the 
Scottish army. (3) In the same moment a brilliant 
idea occurred to him. (4) Striding up to Douglas 
with every appearance of indignant anger, he began 
to cuff •him soundly, and addressing him as his own 
servant,- asked him if he had murdered his master and 
left him on the field, and why he was wearing his 
master's armor. (5) A French officer who stood near 
by asked what he meant by so addressing a nobleman 
of rank, held for ransom. (6) Whereupon Sir William 
burst into a loud laugh and said that he was but a 
servant wearing his master's armor and that forty 
shillings was ransom enough for such as he. (7) He 
then ordered him to go and search for his master's 
body. (8) And Douglas, with all the crestfallen air 
of a detected impostor, slunk off — to freedom. 

Is the meaning in the above story always clear ? 
To whom does each pronoun in sentences (4), (6), 
and (7) refer ? Has the story force ? Does it 
stir your feelings ? Do you read it easily or with 
difficulty ? 

(b) The Escape of the Douglas 

By a very clever ruse, the Earl of Douglas escaped 
after the battle of Poictiers. Among his fellow cap- 
tives was Sir William Ramsay, who instantly realized 
how much the Douglas's escape would mean to the 
Scottish army. In the same moment a brilliant idea 
occurred to him. Striding up to Douglas with every 
appearance of indignant anger, he began to cuff him 
soundly, exclaiming, " How comes it, varlet, that you 



DIRECT QUOTATIONS IN NARRATION 355 

are wearing your master's armor? Perchance you 
have murdered him, wretch, and left his body on the 
field!" 

A French officer, who stood near, interposed, saying, 
" What mean ye by beating and thus addressing a 
Scottish nobleman, held for ransom? " 

Sir William burst into scornful laughter. " Noble- 
man, indeed! " he cried. "A scoundrelly lackey who 
has stolen his dead master's armor! I know the 
rascal. Forty shillings is ransom enough for such as 
he! Off you go, knave, and search for your master's 
body! " And Douglas, with all the crestfallen air 
of a detected impostor, slunk off — to freedom. 

In this second version of the story, is the mean- 
ing clear ? Is there any confusion arising from 
the use of pronouns ? Can you see the event 
more clearly ? 

What change did the use of the direct quota- 
tion make in the paragraphing of the story ? 
Why ? 

How does the writer arouse interest at the very 
beginning of the story ? What is the topic sen- 
tence ? Why ? 

As the story unfolds, your interest, aroused in 
the first sentence, is sustained ; and your curiosity 
to learn how Douglas will escape is excited. While 
you may guess near the beginning how it is going 
to turn out, your curiosity is not entirely satisfied 
by the writer until the very end. 



356 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Has this story a good ending ? Repeat the 
words slunk of — to freedom; see and feel the 
contrast. Picture Douglas ; in what attitude do 
you see him in the two words before the dash ? 
In the two after the dash ? Why is the dash 
used ? * 

VII. A NARRATIVE WITH DIRECT 
QUOTATIONS 

a. Rewrite the following story, using direct quo- 
tations. Choose your words carefully to express 
just what you w T ish the reader to feel and under- 
stand. Paragraph your story correctly. End with 
a strong climax. 

Generalship 

Not every man can draw an inference. Two men 
see the same fact ; one man draws from it another 
fact, the other man draws nothing. The Duke of 
Wellington could draw an inference. 

One day while the Duke was fox-hunting, the hounds, 
on reaching the bank of a small river, lost the scent. 
The master of the hounds apologized to the Duke, 
saying he was afraid the fun was over as the dogs 
could not pick up the scent. The Duke replied that 
he believed the fox had crossed to the other side of 
the river. The master of the hounds said that this 
could hardly be as a fox hates water. The Duke 
agreed, but suggested that the fox had crossed by a 

* See p. 434. 



NARRATIVE WITH DIRECT QUOTATIONS 357 

bridge. The master of the hounds said he did not 
believe there was a bridge anywhere in the neighbor- 
hood. The Duke acknowledged that he had never 
been in that part of the country before, but said he 
would wager a trifle that there was a bridge within a 
mile of the place where they stood. 

The two men, followed by the rest of the hunters, 
pushed on, and less than a mile off came upon a rudely 
constructed bridge. The dogs crossed it, took up the 
scent, and ran down the fox. 

One of the hunters, who had overheard the talk 
about a bridge, asked the Duke how, if he was not 
familiar with that part of the country, he came to 
guess that there was a bridge in the neighborhood. 
The Duke said that he had seen three or four cottages 
clustered together on each bank of the river, and 
inferred that the people living in them would be 
tempted by their social feelings to contrive some 
means of visiting each other. 

An admiring hearer exclaimed that the Duke's infer- 
ence was correct. Whereupon a second hunter replied 
that it was the Duke's power to draw correct infer- 
ences that made him the greatest general of his time. 

How does the first paragraph arouse your in- 
terest and prepare you for the story that follows ? 

What sentence in the first paragraph expresses 
the difference between the master of the hunt 
and the Duke ? 

Which sentence prepares you to expect the 
Duke to make, a correct inference ? 

In rewriting the story, use the exact words you 



358 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

think every speaker might use. Who is the most 
commanding person in the story ? Show it in the 
conversation you put into his mouth. Who is 
the most humble character ? In addressing the 
Duke, the others will say, "your Grace." 

What makes the climax of the story — the 
Duke's inference regarding the bridge or his in- 
ference in greater matters ? Bring this out in 
your story. 

When you have finished, read the story in the 
book once more. Then read yours. If yours is 
not more easily understood, if it does not make 
one feel as well as see the events in the story, 
it is not well done. 

b. Write the story of a personal experience 
containing conversation. Your story may be an 
account of something that happened to you, to a 
friend, or to somebody you know or of whom you 
have heard. Make it clear, interesting, easily 
read, forceful. Think each sentence through be- 
fore writing the first word of it. Select your 
words with care. 

VIII. MAKING THE STORY MOVE 

Every story should move forward from beginning to end 
without interruption ; it may move rapidly or slowly, but 
it must move. 



MAKING THE STORY MOVE 359 

Movement requires clearness, the presentation 
of events in proper order, telling everything neces- 
sary, and omitting everything unnecessary; but 
even this does not insure rapidity of movement. 

To learn how to produce rapid movement in 
a story, let us study and compare the means used 
by some successful writers. 

The Race for the Silver Skates 

The boys form in a line. 

Mynheer van Gleck drops the handkerchief, this 
time. The buglers give a vigorous blast. 

The boys have started. 

Halfway already. Did you ever see the like! 

Three hundred legs flashing by in an instant. But 
there are only twenty boys. No matter : there are 
hundreds of legs I am sure. Where are they now? 
There is such a noise, one gets bewildered. What are 
the people laughing at? Oh! at that fat boy in the 
rear. See him go! See him! He'll be down in an 
instant : no, he won't. I wonder if he knows he is 
all alone ; the other boys are nearly at the boundary- 
line. Yes, he knows it. He stops. He wipes his 
hot face. He takes off his cap, and looks about him. 
Better to give up with a good grace. He has made a 
hundred friends by that hearty, astonished laugh. 
Good Jacob Peet! 

The fine fellow is already among the spectators 
gazing as eagerly as the rest. 

A cloud of feathery ice flies from the heels of the 
skaters as they " bring to," and turn at the flagstaffs. 



360 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Something black is coming now, one of the boys : 
it is all we know. Now they come nearer : we can 
see the red cap. There's Ben, there's Peter, there's 
Hans! 

Hans is ahead. Young Madame van Gend almost 
crushes the flowers in her hands : she had been quite 
sure that Peter would be first. Carl Schummel is 
next, then Ben, and the youth with the red cap. The 
others are pressing close. A tall figure darts from 
among them. He passes the red cap, he passes Ben, 
then Carl. Now it is even race between him and 
Hans. Madame van Gend catches her breath. 

It is Peter! He is ahead! Hans shoots past him. 
Hilda's eyes fill with tears : Peter must beat. Annie's 
eyes flash proudly. Gretel gazes with clasped hands: 
four strokes more will take her brother to the columns. 

He is there! Yes ; but so was young Schummel 
just a second before. At the last instant, Carl, gather- 
ing his powers, had whizzed between them, and passed 
the goal.* 

— Mary Mapes Dodge 

The feeling that the reading of this selection 
produces — haste, speed, excitement, intense 
rivalry to reach the goal — is aroused chiefly by 
the extreme brevity of paragraphs, sentences, and 
words, and the frequent abrupt changes of thought. 
The effect of this brevity is enhanced by the 
punctuation, — the frequent use of the exclama- 
tion point, and the substitution of the colon for 
the period. 

* From Hans Brinker, published by Charles Scribner's Sons. 



MAKING THE STORY MOVE 361 

(1) None of the eleven paragraphs is long. 
How many of them consist of a single sentence ? 
of two sentences ? Note the abrupt and often 
complete change of thought, of picture, from 
paragraph to paragraph. 

(2) There is not a single long sentence even 
though some of them are compound. How many 
such sentences are there ? Note in how many 
cases the thought, or picture, following the colon 
is quite different from that preceding it. The 
rapidity with which one thought, or picture, is 
made to follow another produces the feeling of 
rapid movement. 

Most of the sentences are decidedly short ; 
there are several of two and three words only. 
How many are there of six words or less ? Several 
sentences are shortened by the omission of words 
necessary to make them grammatically complete, 
like the first sentence of the fourth paragraph — 
Halfway already. What words must be under- 
stood in this sentence ? What other sentences 
are similarly shortened ? 

How many exclamatory sentences ? What is 
their effect on the feeling of the reader ? Note 
also the similar effect of the question sentences 
in the fifth paragraph. 

(3) The story is remarkable for the brevity of 



362 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

the words, especially the number of one syllable 
words. How many sentences, like the first, con- 
tain only words of one syllable ? How many sen- 
tences contain not more than one word of two or' 
more syllables ? How many words in the whole 
selection of more than two syllables ? 

Like the sentences, words are in several cases 
abbreviated. How many such cases are there ? 
What mark of punctuation indicates the omission 
of letters ? 

(4) The author does not depend much upon 
the meaning of words to produce the effect of 
rapid movement. Two words in the first sentence 
of the fifth paragraph, flashing and instant, sug- 
gest quickness of action. What other words make 
similar suggestion ? 

You will want to read the whole story of the 
boys' race ; this selection is only one scene. 
You will find it all in Hans Brinker or The Silver 
Skates. 

IX. STUDYING NARRATIVES FOR 
MOVEMENT 

a. "Good speed!" cried the watch, as the gate- 
bolts undrew ; 
"Speed!" echoed the wall to us galloping 
through ; 



NARRATIVES WITH MOVEMENT 363 

Behind shut the postern ; the lights sank to rest, 
And into the midnight we galloped abreast. 



Then I cast loose my buffcoat, each holster let 

fall, 
Shook off both my jack-boots, let go belt and all, 
Stood up in the stirrup, leaned, patted his ear, 
Called my Roland his pet-name, my horse with- 
out peer ; 
Clapped my hands, laughed and sang, any noise, 

bad or good, 
Till at length into Aix Roland galloped and stood. 

— Browning 

The first four lines of the above selection 
tell of the beginning of a race, the remaining 
lines, of the end. Compare the impression you get 
of this race with that of the boys' race on skates. 
Which is the more vivid ? Is this race written 
in the present or the past tense ? 

Are the sentences and words generally long or 
short compared with those used to picture the 
boys' race ? There is here an excellent example 
of rapidity of movement produced by the use 
of the compound predicate. See p. 45. How 
many and what are the verbs forming the com- 
pound predicate of the subject pronoun / in the 
fifth line ? 

b. "It's an affair of life and death," says he; 
" take me on a few miles. I can trust you. I've 



364 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

done a thing — God knows I never intended to — 
but the man is dead. I must fly from Holland." 

— Mary Mapes Dodge 

Was the speaker in the above quotation in a 
hurry ? How does the writer show this ? What 
other feeling beside that of haste is shown ? 

c. Journeyed westward, westward, 
Left the fleetest deer behind him, 
Left the antelope and bison, 
Passed the mountains of the Prairie, 
Passed the land of Crows and Foxes, 
Passed the dwellings of the Blackfeet, 
Came unto the Rocky Mountains, 
To the kingdom of the West-wind. 

— Longfellow 

The first line of the above stanza, telling of the 
journey of Hiawatha from Lake Superior to the 
Rocky Mountains, gives the impression of long 
continued movement ; the idea of the word 
journeyed is emphasized by repeating the word, 
westward, westward. The second and third lines 
give speed to the movement. How ? The four 
following lines intensify the idea of high speed, 
long continued, by enumerating points far apart 
that were successively "passed." The Indian 
tribes "passed" were widely separated; between 
their respective broad domains stretched neutral 
ground. Why ? The covering of such distances 



A NARRATIVE WITH MOVEMENT 365 

suggests the progress of Jack-the-Giant-Killer's 
seven league boots. 

What effect has the repetition of the words 
left and passed ? 

X. A NARRATIVE WITH MOVEMENT 

a. Taking one of the following subjects, or any 
subject of your own, write a story in which the 
movement is rapid. To this end employ any or all 
of the means employed in the selections just studied. 

Excite keen interest with the first sentence. 

Make short paragraphs. 

Make short sentences. 

Use short words. 

Use words expressive of action and speed. 

Use marks of punctuation — the exclamation 
point, the dash, perhaps the colon — denoting ex- 
citement or change. 

Convey the idea of movement and speed 
through the thoughts expressed. 

Lead your story to a climax. 

(1) A Race. (This may be a foot-race, or a race 
with horses, automobiles, boats, airships.) 

(2) A Chase. (By an animal, an angry person, a 
policeman.) 

(3) A Close Game. (Perhaps the last inning of a 
ball game ; kicking a goal ; making a winning point.) 

(4) A Contest. (Spelling, swimming, wrestling.) 



366 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(5) A Fire. (In a factory, school, home, stable, ga- 
rage, power mill.) 

(6) An Escape. (From a cell, an upper story, a 
person, or an animal.) 

XI. HOLDING INTEREST THROUGH 
SUSPENSE 

One way to hold the interest of the reader is to tell the 
story in such a way as to arouse a feeling of suspense, of 
expectation. 

Suspense, aroused at the beginning, kept alive 
and intensified to the end, is satisfied in the climax. 
The latter must be worthy the feeling, else dis- 
appointment rather than satisfaction will result. 

a. The following selection illustrates the hold- 
ing of interest through suspense. 

Mrs. Swinton had in her composition a strong vein 
of the superstitious, and was pleased, among other 
fancies, to read alone in her chamber by a taper fixed 
in a candlestick which had been formed of a human 
skull. One night this strange piece of furniture ac- 
quired suddenly the power of locomotion. It rolled 
about on the mantelpiece in wild circles; then fairly 
leaped to the floor. Here it continued to roll in the 
most weird manner in ever widening circles until the 
light was extinguished. Still in the sudden darkness 
it could be heard knocking against the furniture. 
Mrs. Swinton calmly proceeded to the adjoining 
room for another light, and had the satisfaction to 
penetrate the mystery on the spot. Rats abounded 



A NARRATIVE WITH SUSPENSE 367 

in the ancient dwelling that she inhabited, and one 
of these had taken up his quarters in her favorite 
candlestick. 

— Scott {Adapted) 

The explanation of the mystery is first revealed 
in the closing sentence. 

Scott might have played upon the feelings of 
mystery and superstition much more than he 
did. Let us try it. How can we make the 
movements of the skull more mysterious and 
weird ? How did it begin its movements ? Was 
there any change in the light — did it sputter or 
burn blue ? 

What sound accompanied its fall to the floor 
and the extinguishing of the light ? Was this 
followed by a dead silence ? Had a cricket been 
singing on the hearth ? Did it stop suddenly ? 
How did this silence fit in with the black darkness 
of the room ? When the skull began its move- 
ments again, did it move towards Mrs. Swinton ? 

b. Rewrite the story, making it as ghostly as 
you can. 

XII. A NARRATIVE WITH SUSPENSE 

a. Using one of the following outlines or titles, 
write a story in which the reader's curiosity is 
aroused at the beginning and not satisfied until 



368 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

the very end. You must not let his curiosity flag 
for a moment, or he may not read your story 
through. 

(1) A Narrow Escape 

Time — a few days before the Battle of the Brandywine. 
Author — an officer in the British army. 

He saw an American officer ride within a hundred 
yards of the British line, and called to him. The 
American officer stopped for a moment, looked calmly 
at the British officer, and rode on. The British officer 
again drew his attention and made signs to him to 
stop, but he slowly cantered away. He was so near 
that the British officer could easily have lodged a 
dozen balls in him before he was beyond reach. The 
British officer said it was not pleasant to fire at the 
back of an unoffending individual, who was doing his 
duty so coolly ; so he lowered his rifle. Later the 
British officer learned that the American officer was 
George Washington. 

Near the beginning of your story say something 
that will let the reader know that the American 
officer was a man of importance, but give no hint 
that it was the commander-in-chief. Emphasize 
the coolness of the American officer, who scorned 
alike to surrender or to run from one man ; em- 
phasize also the chivalry of the British officer who 
refused to shoot a brave man in the back. 

Make the ending as you please, only make it 
dramatic — a striking climax. How did Major 



A NARRATIVE WITH SUSPENSE 369 

Ferguson, the British officer, learn that the 
American officer was George Washington — did 
he next see him surrounded by his officers, or at 
the head of his army at Yorktown, or as President 
of the United States ? Your story may well end 
with the name, George Washington. 

You may write the story in the first person as if 
you were Major Ferguson, or you may write it as 
an onlooker. 

(2) The River Demon 

One day in 18 17 the people of St. Louis were startled 
by a horrible noise from the river. It sounded like 
" ten thousand eagles shrieking," or like " the angry 
cries of a demon," said one superstitious onlooker. 
The Indians drew back in terror lest the monster 
climb the bank. The slaves threw themselves on the 
ground and wailed and prayed. The whites rushed 
down to the waterside and with loud hurrahs wel- 
comed the General Pike, the first steamboat that ever 
came up to St. Louis. 

Picture the Indians, and the slaves. Who 

likened the whistle to "ten thousand eagles 

shrieking"? Who likened it to "the angry 
cries of a demon" ? 

(3) The First Sight of a Locomotive. 

Did some one think it a dragon with fiery 
breath, and iron hide, and demon voice ? Who 



370 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

— a child who had read many fairy tales of 
dragons ? 

(4) The First Sight of an Automobile. 
What did it suggest to an onlooker ? 

(5) The First Sight of an Airship. 

What did some person think it was ? 
What might the chickens think it was ? 

XIII. STUDYING A NARRATIVE POEM 

The Song of the Camp 

(1) " Give us a song! " the soldiers cried, 

The outer trenches guarding, 
When the heated guns of the camps allied 
Grew weary of bombarding. 

(2) The dark Redan, in silent scoff, 

Lay, grim and threatening, under; 
And the tawny mound of the Malakoff 
No longer belched its thunder. 

(3) There was a pause. A guardsman said, 

" We storm the forts tomorrow; 
Sing while we may, another day 
Will bring enough of sorrow." 

(4) They lay along the battery's side, 

Below the smoking cannon: 
Brave hearts from Severn, and from Clyde, 
And from the banks of Shannon. 



STUDYING A NARRATIVE POEM 371 

(5) They sang of love, and not of fame ; 

Forgot was Britain's glory ; 
Each heart recalled a different name, 
But all sang, " Annie Laurie." 

(6) Voice after voice caught up the song, 

Until its tender passion 
Rose like an anthem, rich and strong, — 
Their battle-eve confession. 

(7) Dear girl, her name he dared not speak, 

But, as the song grew louder, 
Something upon the soldier's, cheek 
Washed off the stains of powder. 

(8) Beyond the darkening ocean burned 

The bloody sunset's embers, 
While the Crimean valleys learned 
How English love remembers. 

(9) And once again a fire of hell 

Rained on the Russian quarters, 
With scream of shot, and burst of shell, 
And bellowing of the mortars! 

(10) And Irish Nora's eyes are dim 

For a singer, dumb and gory; 

And English Mary mourns for him 

Who sang of " Annie Laurie." 

(11) Sleep, soldiers! still in honored rest 

Your truth and valor wearing: 
The bravest are the tenderest, — 
The loving are the daring. 

— Bayard Taylor 



372 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

The above poem tells the story of a soldiers' 
camp. The place is the Crimean Peninsula, 
Russia ; the time is that of the Crimean War, 
1854-56, when the British and their allies were 
righting the Russians. 

The opening words of the first stanza, "Give 
us a song ! " introduce the story. The first four 
stanzas give the setting and the circumstances. 
The allied gunners had stopped their bombard- 
ment to give their cannon time to cool ; the 
Redan, one of the strongest Russian forts, lay 
before them ; the guns of the Russians on the 
MalakofT defenses were also silent. Note the 
vividness produced by personification : the guns 
"grew weary"; the dark Redan lay scoffing 
silently and threatening grimly; "the tawny 
mound of the MalakofT no longer belched " thunder. 

They were Britons that "lay along the battery's 
side," English, Scotch, and Irish, but the author 
doesn't say this; he calls them "brave hearts" 
from Severn, Clyde, and Shannon, naming a river 
in each country from which the soldiers came. 
In which country is each of the rivers named ? 
Do you like the author's way of telling who the 
soldiers are ? 

The soldiers did not begin to sing at once 
(third stanza). Why not? Did singing seem 



STUDYING A NARRATIVE POEM 373 

out of place ? Or couldn't they think of a song 
at once ? Perhaps the thought expressed by the 
guardsman, that many of them might die the 
next day, suggested to some soldier the last lines 

of "Annie Laurie" : 

And for bonnie Annie Laurie 
I'd lay me down and dee. 

However it started, "voice after voice caught up 
the song." 

What is meant by the last two lines of the fifth 
stanza ? 

Each heart recalled a different name, 
But all sang, " Annie Laurie " ? 

What name did an Irish singer have in his mind ? 
An English singer ? (Tenth stanza.) 

The battle is resumed (ninth stanza) — "a 
fire of hell." What effect has the strong contrast 
between the pictures and feelings of this stanza 
and those both of the preceding and the following 
stanzas ? 

Note how indirectly and how gently the tenth 
stanza tells of the soldiers' death. The last 
stanza pays tribute to their bravery and tender- 
ness. What comparison does the author use ? 
What words does he use to describe or suggest 
the firing of artillery ? 



374 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

XIV. A NARRATIVE WITH SENTIMENT 

From one of the following outlines, write a 
story showing the power of some simple, familiar 
words to weave a spell that shall produce good : 

a. A burglar stealthily entering a house, hears a 
mother in the next room, saying, 

" This little pig went to market," etc. 

He hears the baby chuckle with glee. What 
memories does this recall to him ? How does he 
act? 

Do not tell the mere facts of your story ; make 
the reader feel and act with the burglar. 

b. How would the singing of " Home, Sweet Home " 
weave a spell for — 

(i) Two opposing armies after a battle in which 
many men died in defense of their homes? 

(2) A tramp passing by a happy home? 

(3) A boy who has run away from home? 

(4) A stranger in a far land? 

c. An American hears " The Star-Spangled Banner " 
sung in a foreign land. 

d. Two strangers in unusual circumstances — one 
begins to whistle the college song that belongs to both. 

e. A stranger hears a mother tell a story that he 
had heard from his own mother in the far-ofF days of 
his own childhood. 

/. The appeal of any verse from the Bible, a hymn, 
poem, word, or sign. 



KEEPING A JOURNAL 375 

When you have finished, read your story 
through carefully and correct any errors in spelling, 
punctuation, sentence structure, and paragraphing. 

Ask yourself these questions : 

Is my story clear ? — can it be understood easily ? 

Is it forcible ? — does it appeal to the feelings ? 

Have I done my best to make it beautiful ? 

XV. KEEPING A JOURNAL 

One of the best ways of improving your writing 
is to keep a journal. You must make it worth 
while, or you will soon tire of it and give it up, 
as so many others have done. To make your 
journal worth while, you should record in it in- 
cidents of importance and of present interest to 
yourself, — incidents that you think will interest 
yourself or others in the future. You should make 
the record clear, forceful, and interesting. You 
should make it serious or amusing, as the incidents 
require. Such a journal grows increasingly valu- 
able with time. 

In a village in the East lives an old man of 
eighty. Since his twelfth year he has kept a 
journal. On cold nights in winter or on rainy 
days in summer, his grandchildren flock around 
him with the request, "Read us something from 
your book, Grandfather." And while he reads, 



376 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

the children — yes, and some older folks, too — 
laugh in glee, or listen with great round eyes to 
the true stories of the days of long ago. Some 
day parts of this man's journals will be published, 
and the world will be the richer. 

You must not think that only exceptional 
people can keep an interesting journal ; any one 
who can write can do it. When Lewis and Clark 
made their famous journey into the Northwest, 
they encouraged every man in their company of 
brave explorers to keep a journal. Patrick Gass 
had probably less schooling than any other man 
in the party. He said that he had attended 
school but nineteen days in all his life ; yet his 
journal was the first, and one of the best, accounts 
of the journey published. Why ? He was a very 
keen observer, he knew how to select interesting 
facts and incidents, and he knew how to tell 
these in an interesting manner. You can do that, 
can you not ? An old schoolmaster helped Gass 
in the final composition of his journal, but for 
this help he had to wait until he returned to the 
East. You have your book and your teacher to 
help you now at the first writing. Begin a journal 
to-day. Do not try to write a long story every 
day ; try rather to make what you write interest- 
ing. 



STORIES FROM BEGINNINGS 377 

XVI. STORIES FROM SUGGESTIVE 
BEGINNINGS 

Select one of the following groups of suggestive 
sentences and use it as the beginning of a story. 
Make your story as clear, forcible, and interesting 
as you can : 

(1) A company of men marched through the moonlit 
woods gayly as to a merrymaking, but withal silently 
as only woodsmen could. They jostled one another, 
found delight in holding down springy saplings and 
allowing them to spring back to switch the ears of 
the men coming behind. It was a picnic of big boys 
— which would be no picnic when they got -down to 
business. — From a Magazine 

Who were the men ? Why were they silent ? 
Where were they going ? What happened when 
they arrived ? 

(2) " You drive me away as if I were a homeless 
cur. Do I look like a thief ? Do I look like a tramp ? 
O lady, give me a chance! " 

Who spoke these words ? To whom ? Where ? 
Did the lady grant the request ? How ? With 
what results ? 

(3) Softly and stealthily Charles Reed crept from 
his house, and with many a backward glance, made 
his way to his neighbor's door. 



378 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Why did he leave his house in such a manner ? 
Why did he go to his neighbor's ? Finish the 
story. 

(4) Bright and pleasant was the sky, balmy the 
air, and beautiful the appearance of every object 
around. — Dickens 

What happened — something to break the calm ? 

(5) There was a table set out under a tree in front 
of the house. — Charles L. Dodgson 

(6) I was interrupted by a voice which I took to be 
that of a child, which complained it could not get out. 
I looked up and down the passage, and seeing neither 
man, woman, nor child, I went out without further 
attention. 

On my return back through the passage, I heard 
the same words repeated twice over, " I can't get out! 
I can't get out! " — Sterne 

To whom did the voice belong ? Where was the 
speaker ? What did I do ? With what result ? 

XVII. WRITING MYTHS FROM SUGGESTIVE 
OUTLINES 

a. Some of the most beautiful stories, as well 
as some of the oldest, are myths. Almost every 
race and nation has its myths. The simplest 
myths are the nature myths, — myths in which 
either rewards or punishments are made the basis 



WRITING MYTHS FROM OUTLINES 379 

of fanciful explanations of the origin of things. 
Thus there are myths telling how, as a punishment, 
the raven and the crow were made black, how the 
owl became blind in daytime, how the rabbit lost 
his tail ; while other myths tell how, as a reward, 
the robin received his red breast, the kingbird his 
golden feathers, the rabbit his long ears. 

To write a good nature myth, we must be 
close observers. We must notice how one flower, 
leaf, bird, animal, or tree differs from others, and 
imagine how that difference may have come about. 
We may call upon any agency to help us — the 
old gods, the fairies, or Mother Nature herself. 
Suppose we are making flower myths. We first 
choose a flower that differs from others in some 
striking way, as for example, the Moccasin Flower, 
so named because of its supposed resemblance to 
an Indian moccasin. Now, for our myths. Per- 
haps this flower was at one time a moccasin. If 
so, to whom did it belong ? How and why was it 
changed to a flower ? Here are some myth plots 
explaining the origin of this flower. 

(1) An Indian maiden, fleeing from a savage bear, 
lost her moccasin. After the young braves of the 
tribe had slain the bear, they looked in vain for the 
maiden's moccasin. All they ever found was a new 
flower that resembled it. This they called the Moccasin 
Flower. 



3 8o THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(2) An Indian squaw went down to the river to 
draw water. On her return to the wigwam, she 
missed her little pappoose. Fearing that a bear had 
devoured him or a wolf carried him off, she rushed 
through the woods calling him. Suddenly in the 
grass before her, she spied a new flower shaped like 
her child's moccasin. Just the length of his short 
stride away, she saw another flower, and beyond 
more and more. " They are like my babe's moccasins; 
they mark his footprints. Manitou has sent them to 
show me the trail to follow," she cried. She followed 
the trail and found her child — safe. 

(3) The Moccasin Flower is the state flower of 
Minnesota, in the land of the Dakotas. It was to 
this land, to the Falls of Minnehaha, that Hiawatha 
came seeking his bride. And very pretty and ap- 
propriate is the following myth of the Moccasin 
Flower. 

The Land of the Dakotas felt sad as Hiawatha led 
the beautiful Minnehaha from her home. Never 
again would it feel the light tread that scarcely bent 
the " wild flowers of the prairie." So, as a memorial, 
the earth sent a new flower to mark the passing foot- 
prints of the lovely Laughing Water. 

b. The above are mere outlines of myths telling 
how the Moccasin Flower came to be, and to be 
so named. Choose one and write a myth from it. 
Make your story clear and forcible ; try to make 
it beautiful also. Picture scenes of Indian life. 
Why should the moccasin flower be associated with 
Indian life ? 



WRITING MYTHS FROM QUOTATIONS 381 
XVIII. WRITING MYTHS FROM QUOTATIONS 

a. Write a myth suggested by one of the follow- 
ing quotations : 

(1) " The Barberry hangs her jewels out, 

And guards them with a thorn." 

Originally, what were the red berries of the 
barberry — rubies, garnets ? How did she get 
them — did some one give them to her as a re- 
ward ? Who gave them and for what ? What 
happened to the jewels — did some thief steal 
them ? To what did she then have the jewels 
changed ? Who now trod them down and de- 
voured them ? How did the plant then protect 
them ? 

(2) There should be some myth (but if there is, I 
know it not) founded on the shivering of the reeds. 
There are not many things in nature more striking to 
man's eye. It is such an eloquent pantomime of terror ; 
and to see such a number of terrified creatures taking 
sanctuary in every nook along the shore is enough to 
infect a silly human with alarm. Perhaps they are 
only a-cold, and no wonder, standing waist deep in the 
stream. Or, perhaps, they have never got accustomed 
to the speed and fury of the river's flux, or the miracle 
of its continuous body. . . . 

The reeds might nod their heads in warning, and 
with tremulous gestures tell how the river was as cruel 
as it was strong and cold, and how death lurked in the 
eddy under the willows. — Stevenson 



382 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Those of you who have seen the reeds, or tall 
coarse grasses, bending, swaying, nodding, and 
"shivering" along the margin of a brook or river, 
know how truly Stevenson paints them. If only 
he, himself, had written the myth, "Why the 
Reeds Shiver," how much we should have enjoyed 
it ! But instead he has given you rich suggestions. 
Perhaps the following questions and further sug- 
gestions will help you to write the myth. 

Why are the reeds so terrified ? What were they 
before they became reeds ? They resemble some- 
what the long lances carried by the soldiers of old. 

"Perhaps they are only a-cold." Why are 
they condemned to stand ever waist deep in the 
cold waters ? For what crime would this be a just 
punishment ? 

"Perhaps they have never got accustomed to 
the speed and fury of the river." Are they timid 
souls fearing to cross the stream ? Perhaps, like 
the boy in the fable, they are waiting for all the 
water to run past. 

What suggestion do you find in the last para- 
graph of the quotation ? 

(3) "The moping owl does to the moon complain." 

(4) " Said the Wind to the Moon, ' I will blow you 
out.' " 

(5) " Grasshopper green is a comical chap." 



WRITING MYTHS FROM TITLES 383 

XIX. WRITING MYTHS FROM TITLES 

From one of the following titles, write a myth. 
Remember that no story is good that is not clear 
and forcible. Try to make your myth beautiful as 
well. 

a. Plant Myths. 

Before trying to write a myth about a particular 
plant or flower, it will help you to observe that 
plant or flower very closely; study all its parts, 
their shape and color ; study its habits. 

(1) Why the Daisy Hides Its Gold at Night. 
(The daisy closes its petals over its golden heart at 
night.) 

(2) Why the Arbutus Is Bittersweet. 

(3) How We Got the First Cat-Tails. 

(4) How We Got the First Lily of the Valley. 

(5) Why the Leaves of the Dogtooth Violet (some- 
times called "-Trout Lily" or "Fawn Lily") Are 
Spotted. 

(6) How We Got the First Trillium. 

(7) How We Got the Bloodroot. 

(8) Why Some Roses Climb and Others Do Not. 

(9) Why the Blackberry Has Thorns. 

(10) How the Flowers Got Their Color. 

(11) How the Flowers Got Their Fragrance. 

(12) How the Leaves Got Their Spring Color. 

(13) How the Leaves Got Their Autumn Color. 

(14) Why the Dandelion Has Winged Seeds. 



384 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

b. Animal Myths. 

If possible, observe closely and study carefully 
any animal or bird about which you are going to 
write a myth. 

(i) How We Got the First Woodpecker. 

(2) Why the Flicker Has Gold Under His Wings. 

(3) How the Birds Learned to Sing. 

(4) Why the Birds Live in Trees. 

(5) How We Got the First Scarlet Tanager. 

(6) Why the Humming Bird Is Like a Jewel. 

(7) How the Deer Got His Antlers. 

(8) How the Beaver Got His Flat Tail. 

(9) How We Got the First Dragon Fly. 

(10) How the Porcupine Got His Spines. 

(11) How the Opossum Learned to " Play Dead." 

(12) How the Mosquito Got a Dagger. 

The above titles are merely suggestive. If 
none appeals to you, make one for yourself, and 
write your own myth. 

XX. FABLES: THEIR ORIGIN AND USE 

^sop, the Great Fable Teller 

Croesus, king of Lydia, was said to be the richest 
ruler of his day. Early in his reign he discovered 
that knowledge is power ; so he gathered around 
him from all nations those who had gained a 
reputation for superior wisdom. Possibly no king 
ever had so many wise advisers. The chief of all 



FABLES: THEIR ORIGIN AND USE 385 

these wise men was Solon, the Sage. His wisdom 
was justly praised by all men. 

To this court of wealth and wisdom came a 
slave, called JEsop. Not to advise the king from 
his stores of wisdom came JEsop, but to amuse 
him by his wit. He came to amuse, but he re- 
mained to teach, for yEsop's fables probably 
taught Croesus more homely truths than all the 
wisdom of the wise men. Often when even Solon 
angered the king and turned him from wise action 
by speaking the truth too bluntly for the mon- 
arch's ears, iEsop, by a droll fable, conveyed the 
advice that led to right results ; at the same time 
he amused the king with his quaint narratives. 
The explanation of this is simple : the fable is 
true wisdom — wisdom that even a child can un- 
derstand — clothed in interesting fiction. The 
following story shows how iEsop used his fables. 

Once, when on a visit to Athens, JEsop heard many 
expressions of dissatisfaction from ruler and people ; 
thereupon he told them the fable, " The Frogs and 
Jupiter," thus teaching both prince and people a 
needed lesson. 

" In the days of old, when the frogs were at liberty 
in the ponds, and had grown weary of following every 
one his own devices, they assembled one day together, 
and with no little clamor petitioned Jupiter to let them 
have a king to rule over them. 

"Jupiter, knowing the vanity of their hearts, smiled 



386 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

at their request and threw down a log into the pond. 
The splash and commotion it made, set the whole 
commonwealth into the greatest terror and amaze- 
ment. They rushed under the water and into the mud, 
and dared not come within ten leaps' length of the spot 
where the log lay. At last one frog, bolder than the 
rest, ventured to pop his head above the water, and 
take a survey of their new king at a respectful distance. 
Presently when they perceived the log lie stock still, 
others began to swim up to it and around it, till by 
degrees, growing bolder and bolder, they at last leaped 
upon it, and treated it with the greatest contempt. 

"Dissatisfied with so tame a ruler, they forthwith 
petitioned Jupiter a second time for another and more 
active king ; upon which he sent them a stork, who 
no sooner arrived among them than he began laying 
hold of them and devouring them one by one as fast 
as he could, and it was in vain that they endeavored 
to escape him. 

"Then they sent Mercury with a private message to 
Jupiter, beseeching him that he would take pity on 
them once more ; but Jupiter replied, that they were 
only suffering the punishment due to their folly, and 
that another time they would learn to let well enough 
alone, and not be dissatisfied with their condition." 

What lesson did ^Esop teach the people with 
this fable ? What lesson did he teach the prince ? 

From this fable we have two titles that are 
often applied to rulers — King Log and King 
Stork. What kind of ruler merits the name 
King Log ? What kind, the name King Stork ? 



PROVERBS GROWING OUT OF FABLES 387 



XXI. PROVERBS GROWING OUT OF FABLES 



From the fable, "The Frogs and Jupiter," has 
come the familiar proverb, "Let well enough 
alone." Many of our best-known proverbs came 
from fables in the same way. Below are lists of 
fables and of the proverbs that grew from them. 
Any fable with which you are not familiar you 
should read, to understand just how the proverb 
growing from it expresses the truth that the fable 
teaches. All are from JEsop 's Fables. 



Fables 

(1) The Fox and the 

Goat. 

(2) The Ant and the 

Grasshopper. 

(3) The Cock and the 

Jewel. 

(4) The Fawn and Her 

Mother. 

(5) The Dog and the 

Shadow. 

(6) The Creaking Wheels. 



(7) The Hare and the 

Tortoise. 

(8) The Crab and Her 

Mother. 



Proverbs 

Look before you leap. 

Winter finds what Summer 

lays by. 
Despise not what is pre- 
cious because you cannot 

understand it. 
There is no arguing a 

coward into courage. 
Don't grasp at the shadow 

and lose the substance. 
Those who cry loudest are 

not always the most 

hurt. 
Slow and steady wins the 

race. 
Example is better than 

precept. 



3 88 



THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 



Fables 

(9) The Husbandman 
and the Stork. 

(10) The Bundle of Sticks. 

(11) The Boy and the 

Nettle. 

(12) The Fox and the 

Crow. 

(13) The Lion and the 

Bulls. 

(14) The Miser. 



(15) The Hunter and the 

Woodman. 

(16) The Country Maid 

and Her Milk Pail. 

(17) The Mice in Council. 

(18) The Thief and the 

Dog. 



Proverbs 

One is judged by the com- 
pany he keeps. 

Union is strength. 

Do boldly what you do at 
all. 

Men seldom flatter with- 
out some private end in 
view. 

The quarrels of friends are 
the opportunities of foes. 

The worth of money is not 
in its possession, but in 
its use. 

A coward can be a hero at 
a distance. 

Don't count your chickens 
before they are hatched. 

It is one thing to propose, 
another to execute. 

A bribe in hand betrays 
mischief at heart. 



XXII. HOW TO WRITE A FABLE FROM A 
PROVERB 

We saw how JEsop used the fable, "The Frogs 
and Jupiter," to teach the truth in the proverb, 
"Let well enough alone." From the above list 
of fables select one and use it in a story to teach 
the truth contained in the proverb following it. 



HOW TO WRITE A FABLE 389 

Having selected your fable, think of the situation 
or circumstances under which it might be used 
to teach the truth it contains ; then write your 
story, bringing in the fable. End your story with 
the fable's proverb ; it will make a good climax. 

Following the above directions, I choose fable 
(18) and write this story: 

The Just Judge 

Thaddeus, the Wise, was a just judge. Once there 
came before him Zaccheus, the potter, and Caleb, the 
jeweller, both accused of theft. It soon became evi- 
dent that only one of the two was guilty. But who 
could say which? When Thaddeus looked on Zac- 
cheus's open countenance, he felt sure he read in- 
nocence there. When he listened to Caleb's words, 
he felt almost convinced that they rang true. At 
length he dismissed both men, saying, " I will think 
over the matter this night. In the morning, I will 
pronounce judgment." 

With a sad look, Zaccheus turned away with his 
keepers ; but Caleb asked permission to speak a word 
in the judge's ear. Consent being given, he approached 
Thaddeus, and pressing a purse of gold into the judge's 
hand, said, " I assure you I am an honest man. Set 
me at liberty and the purse is yours." 

Anger blazed in the judge's eyes. He threw the 
purse at Caleb's feet saying, " Take back your bribe! " 
Then he called the officers to return to the courtroom 
with Zaccheus. When all were again in their places, 
the judge arose and spoke. 



390 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

" Many years ago, yEsop told the fable of ' The 
Thief and the Dog.' That story I will now repeat to 
you. 

" A thief coming to rob a house tried to stop the 
barking of a dog by throwing a bone to him. ' Away 
with you,' cried the dog ; ' I had my suspicions of 
you before, but this excess of civility assures me that 
you are a rogue.' " 

Then turning to Caleb, the judge continued : " I 
felt from the beginning more confidence in Zaccheus's 
innocence than in yours. Now I know that he is inno- 
cent, and that you are the guilty man, for it is truly 
said, 'A bribe in the hand betrays mischief at heart.' " 

In preparing to write the above story, I first 
asked myself, "To whom might a bribe be of- 
fered?" Some of the answers that came to my 
mind were a judge trying a case, a policeman 
arresting a man, a custom officer at a port of entry, 
the guard of a castle or fort, a watchman, a con- 
ductor. 

Having chosen to make my story about the 
judge, I planned it carefully in my mind, determin- 
ing the circumstances and the characters to be 
used. Then I looked in a dictionary of proper 
names to find names suited to my characters. I 
called the judge Thaddeus, meaning the wise ; I 
called one of the prisoners Zaccheus, meaning 
innocent, and the other Caleb, meaning a dog. 
Why did I choose these particular names ? 



WRITING FABLES TO FIT PROVERBS 391 

XXIII. WRITING FABLES TO FIT PROVERBS 

Out of the fable, "The Frogs and Jupiter," 
grew the proverb, "Let well enough alone," or 
" Be contented with what you have." Here are 
more proverbs on contentment. Select one, and 
write a fable out of which it might have grown, 
that is, a fable teaching the same truth as the 
proverb. 

(1) To the discontented man no chair is easy. 

— Franklin 

To whom might these words be spoken ? By 
whom ? Under what circumstances ? 

(2) Pigs grunt about everything and nothing. 

— Dutch 

Under what circumstances might a Dutch 
mother say this to her child ? 

(3) Better to lose the anchor than the whole ship. 

— Dutch 

Who lost the anchor ? Why was it, lost ? Who 
spoke the words of the proverb ? 

(4) Since the house is on fire, let us warm ourselves. 

(5) He that hath a good harvest, may be content 
with some thistles. — Scottish 

(6) Better ride a poor horse than go afoot. 

— German 

(7) He is well paid that is satisfied. 

— Shakespeare 



392 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(8) A little stream as well as the river may quench 
thirst. — Spanish 

(9) The snail sees little but its own little shell, and 
thinks it the grandest palace in the world. 

— Hindoo 

(10) If you can't fly, you can climb. 

(11) East or West, 

Home is best. — Dutch 

(12) Small service is true service while it lasts. 

— Wordsworth 

XXIV. WRITING STORIES TO FIT 
PROVERBS 

a. Proverbs may originate in true incidents as 
well as in fables. Long after the incident is for- 
gotten, the proverb to which it gave rise may 
continue in use. Such an incident as the follow- 
ing might yield the proverb with which the story 
closes. 

It was the eve of battle. We were all excited. For 
weeks our company had been inactive. Day after 
day had passed, filled only with the monotonous round 
of camp duties. To-day we had reached the front. 
To-morrow we were to have our first taste of real 
battle. Were we frightened ? Not a bit. We were 
hilarious. We all sang and joked as if we were 
going to a picnic. When I say all, I mean all but 
the old sergeant. He was so quiet and absorbed in 
his own thoughts, that we all noticed it. At last 
Billy Dean called out with a laugh, " What's the 



WRITING STORIES TO FIT PROVERBS 393 

matter, Sergeant ? Are you afraid of the battle to- 



morrow 



?" 



"Yes," answered the sergeant briefly. 

His answer fell like a bomb in the camp. We were 
stricken speechless. The sergeant afraid ! Our model 
of the perfect soldier dreading the battle ! Could we 
have heard aright ? In our hearts we began to despise 
him. Tom Drum, whom we had looked upon as the 
coward of the company, gave voice to our thoughts by 
asking with a sneer, " If you are afraid now, how will 
you act when the bugle sounds the charge ? " 

" Like a hero! " came a voice from behind. We 
turned quickly. There stood the captain. " My 
men," he continued kindly, " your sergeant has reason 
to be afraid. He knows what a battle means. But 
it will not prevent his doing his duty as he always 
has done. The experienced soldier knows that a 
brave man trembles before the bugle blows ; a coward, 
afterwards." 

b. Below are some proverbs that may well 
have had their origins in real incidents. Choose 
one of them and write a story that might have 
given rise to it. 

(1) Facing danger is not courage unless one knows 
the danger faced. 

(2) The man who has never been in danger cannot 
answer for his courage. — French 

(3) When we go for berries we must not retreat for 
brambles. 

(4) It is not enough to run ; one must start in time. 

(5) Better ask than go astray. — Italian 



394 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(6) A lazy sheep thinks its wool heavy. 

(7) He that hath learned how to obey will know 
how to command. — Solon 

(8) Don't cry, " Fried fish! " until you have them 
in the net. — Italian 

(9) Every bird likes its own nest. 

(10) Honest is the cat when the meat is out of 
reach. — Scottish 

(11) Between " said " and " done " 
A long race may be won. 

— Cervantes 

(12) Pleasing everybody is pleasing nobody. 

— Spanish 

(13) If you would have your business done, go; if 
not, send. — Franklin 

(14) Though you seat the frog on a golden stool, 
He will soon jump back into the pool. 

— Dutch 

(15) Everybody's business is nobody's business. 

— German 

(16) Don't try to fly like an eagle with the wings of a 
wren. 

(17) Better a good head than a thousand strong 
hands. — Swiss 

(18) It is better to be sure than sorry. 

(19) Too swift arrives as tardy as too slow. 

— Shakespeare 

(20) He that runs in the night stumbles. 

(21) Better a little fire to warm us than a great one 
to burn us. — Scottish 

(22) Too many cooks spoil the broth. 

— Scottish 



CHAPTER THIRTEEN 

HOW TO MAKE SENTENCES FORCEFUL 

To be really good, a sentence must not only 
be clear ; it must also be forceful. It must be 
clear that it may be easily understood ; it must be 
forceful that it may impress the hearer or reader 
so that he will remember it, or be moved to thought 
or action. 

I. FORCE THROUGH ADDED DETAILS 

Read the following sentences : 

(i) And out of the houses the rats came tumbling. 

(2) And out of the houses the rats came tumbling; 
Great rats, small rats, lean rats, brawny rats, 
Brown rats, black rats, gray rats, tawny rats, 
Grave old plodders, gay young friskers, 
Fathers, mothers, uncles, cousins, 

Families by tens and dozens, 
Brothers, sisters, husbands, wives, 

Robert Browning has made the second sentence 
more forceful than the first by heaping up detail. 
This is a common way of giving force to a sen- 
tence. 

395 



396 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Sentences may be made forceful by adding detail. 

a. Make the following sentences more forceful 
by giving more detail. 

(i) Every nation of the earth was represented at the 
World's Fair. 

(Who ? Dignified Arabs, laughing Negroes, gi- 
gantic Australians, pigmy Esquimos, etc.) 

(2) Up in the air rose hundreds of kites. 
(What kinds, colors, shapes ?) 

(3) The room was full of books. 

(4) The whole shop was overrun with dolls. 

(5) Game abounded in the forest. 

(6) The boy's pocket held a wonderful collection. 

II. FORCE THROUGH CLIMAX 

Julius Caesar sent to Rome one of the most 
forceful sentences that has ever been uttered : 
I came, I saw, I conquered. 

This sentence is forceful because of its brevity 
and the order of the thoughts. They lead to a 
climax ; the most important thing is told last. 

Here are some other sentences that are forceful 
for the same reason : 

(1) We have met the enemy and they are ours. 

— Commodore Perry 

(2) Here was I born, here have I played, here have 
I toiled, here will I remain. — Black Hawk 



FORCE THROUGH REPETITION 397 

(3)1 pledge allegiance to my flag and to the Republic 
for which it stands, one nation, indivisible, with liberty 
and justice for all. 

(4) The battle, sir, is not to the strong alone ; it is 
to the vigilant, the active, the brave. 

— Patrick Henry 

(5) I know not what course others may take ; but 
as for me, give me liberty or give me death. 

— Patrick Henry 

Sentences may be made forceful by arranging the parts in 
order of climax. 

III. FORCE THROUGH REPETITION OF WORDS 

Patrick Henry made some of his sentences 
most forceful by the repetition of a word or 
phrase. 

We must fight! I repeat it, sir, we must fight! 
The war is inevitable — and let it come! I repeat 
it, sir, let it come! 

Here are some other sentences in which words 
are repeated for force. 

(1) We shall not fail — if we stand firm, we shall not 
fail. — Abraham Lincoln 

(2) Toll, toll, toll, 

Thou bell by billows swung. 

(3) Blow, bugle, blow! set the wild echoes flying, 
And answer, echoes, answer, — dying, dying, 

dying! — Tennyson 

(4) I chatter, chatter as I flow. — Tennyson 



398 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(5) A gentleman is gentle; a gentleman is modest; 
a gentleman is courteous; a gentleman is generous; 
a gentleman is slow to take offense. 

— Bishop Doane 

(6) If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, 
while a foreign troop was landed in my country, I 
never would lay down my arms — never, never, never! 

— William Pitt 
Sentences may be made forceful by repeating certain 
words or expressions. 

a. Write one or more sentences on each of the 
following topics, using repetition to make the 
meaning more forceful or emphatic. 

The Flight of a Bird. 

The Destruction of an Airship. 

Canoeing. 

Marching. 

Beating a Drum. 

Swinging. 

Going to Sleep. 

IV. FORCE THROUGH EASY QUESTIONS 

In "Warren's Address" at Bunker Hill many 
of the most forceful sentences are in the form 
of questions : 

Will ye give it (your land) up to slaves? 
Will ye look for greener graves? 
Hope ye mercy still? 
What's the mercy despots feel? 

— John Pierpont 



FORCE THROUGH EASY QUESTIONS 399 

The speaker awaits no answer to his question; 
no answer is necessary, for only one is possible. 
How much more forceful these questions than the 
following statements : 

Ye will never give your land up to slaves. Ye will 
not run away ; ye will die here if need be. Ye do not 
hope for mercy. Ye know very well that a despot 
feels no mercy. 

A question that can be answered in only one way is often 
more emphatic than a positive statement. . 

a. An Indian, trying to show that money in 
itself is of little worth, asked these questions : 

Of what use is your money? Can you eat it? 
Will it bring the rain? Will it preserve you from 
sickness? Will it cure you when you are ill? Will 
it make the old young again? Will it stay death? 
Does it serve you beyond the grave ? 

Change the Indian's questions into statements, 
as: 

Your money is of little worth. You cannot eat it. 

Compare the statements with the questions. 
Which form of expression is the more forceful ? 

Orators make frequent use of the question to 
give force to the ideas that they wish to impress. 
Here are more examples : 

(1) Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be pur- 
chased at the price of chains and slavery? 

— Patrick Henry 



4 oo THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(2) What have you to gain by division and dissen- 



sion r 

(3) What is your brave act without a brave nature 
behind it? What is your smile unless I know that 
you are kind? What is your indignant blow unless 
your heart is on fire? What is all your activity 
without you? — Phillips Brooks 

(On Character and Action) 

What one word answers all the questions in (2) 
and (3) ? 

b. Write a paragraph on one of the following 
suggestions. End your paragraph with an em- 
phatic question : 

(1) The British soldiers were told that the Americans 
were cowards who would fly at the sight of the British 
regulars. They met the regulars at Bunker Hill. 
Were they cowards? 

(2) The opportunities for education in your town. 
Are all making use of them? 

(3) The man who puts off. Does it pay? 

(4) A ball team that has been ridiculed by every 
other team in the league wins the pennant. 

V. FORCE THROUGH EXCLAMATIONS 

A night attack is presented in these short ex- 
clamatory sentences : 

Dim in the starlight their white tents appear! 
Ride slowly! Ride softly! 
The sentry may hear! 



FORCE THROUGH BREVITY 401 

The charge is given in such sentences as these : 

Now fall on the foe like a tempest of flame! 

Strike down the false banner whose ensign is shame! 

Strike for freedom! Strike for fame! 

What effect has the exclamatory sentence on the 
feeling of the hearer*? 

Sentences may be made forceful by using the exclamatory 
form. 

VI. FORCE THROUGH BREVITY 

Some of the most forceful sentences in the 
English language are the shortest sentences. To 
say a thing well in a few words is perhaps as great 
a power as a speaker or a writer can possess. 

The old proverbs, containing the wisdom of the 
ages, are among the most forceful sentences in all 
languages. They cannot be forgotten. 

Here are some sentences that owe much of their 
force to their brevity : 

(1) I'll find a way or make it. — Roman 

(2) A coward dies a thousand deaths. 

— German 

(3) A bold attempt is half success. — Danish 

(4) Home is where love is. — Scottish 

(5) Hope is the best medicine. 

(6) A pound of pluck is worth a ton of luck. 

(7) Better beg than steal, but better work than 
either. — Russian 



4 o2 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(8) Impatience never commands success. 

(9) He that can have patience can have what he 
will. — Franklin 

(10) Courage is fire, bullying is smoke. 

— Beaconsfield 

(11) He lives who dies to win a lasting name. 

— Drummond 

(12) They never fail who die in a great cause. 

— Byron 

(13) Silence is often more eloquent than words. 

— Carlyle 

(14) All men are possible heroes. — Browning 

(15) Show me a thoroughly contented man, and 
I will show you a useless one. — Shakespeare 

A sentence may be made forceful by saying much in few 
words. 

VII. FORCE THROUGH CONTRAST 

Study the following sentences. What makes 
them forceful ? 

(1) A thousand years scarce serve to form a state; 
An hour may lay it in the dust. — Byron 

Here are two pairs of contrasting ideas : a 
thousand years is contrasted with an hour, and 
to form a state with lay it in the dust. 

(2) I would rather make my name than inherit it. 

— Thackeray 
What is contrasted with make ? 

Bringing together contrasting ideas makes a sentence 
forceful. 



FORCE THROUGH CONTRAST 403 

This is one of the most frequently used and one 
of the most effective ways of giving sentences 
force. Any degree of contrast between two ideas 
tends to make each stand out more strongly ; the 
greater the contrast, the more striking the im- 
pression. The force of the following sentences is 
due largely to contrasting ideas. What is con- 
trasted in each sentence ? 

(3) A great artist can paint a great picture on a 
small canvas. — Warner 

(4) The world will little note, nor long remember, 
what we say here, but it can never forget what they 
did here. — A. Lincoln 

(5) Knowledge is proud that he knows so much ; 
wisdom is humble that he knows no more. 

COWPER 

(6) Talent is power, tact is skill ; talent is weight, 
tact is momentum ; talent knows what to do, tact 
how to do it ; talent is wealth, tact ready money. 

(7) The bravest are the tenderest; 
The loving are the daring. 

— Bayard Taylor 

(8) The soldier stepped from the trenches into the 
furrow ; horses that had charged Federal guns marched 
before the plow, and fields that ran red with human 
blood in April were green with the harvest in June. 

— H. W. Grady 

(9) Civility costs nothing and buys everything. 

— Montague 

(10) Better aim at a star than shoot down a well. 

(11) Better one mistake avoided than two corrected. 



4 04 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

VIII. STUDYING SENTENCES FOR FORCE 

What makes each of the following sentences 
forceful ? 

(a) Ay, tear her tattered ensign down! 

Did Holmes really want to see the flag torn 
from the mast of "Old Ironsides"? 

(b) Strike — till the last armed foe expires ; 
Strike — for your altars and your fires; 
Strike — for the green graves of your sires; 
God — and your native land! 

— Fitz-Greene Halleck 

Find four elements of force in the above. 

(c) Theirs not to make reply, 
Theirs not to reason why, 

Theirs but to do and die. — Tennyson 

(d) O Solitude! Where are the charms 
That sages have seen in thy face? 

— William Cowper 

Did the speaker expect any answer ? Did he 
think solitude possessed any charms ? What did 
he mean to say ? 

(e) Jet and lava — silver and gold — 
Garnets — emeralds rare to behold — 
Diamonds — sapphires — wealth untold — 
All were hers, to have and to hold. 

— Edmund Clarence Stedman 



STUDYING SENTENCES FOR FORCE 405 

What details of the "wealth untold" are given ? 
In what other ways is the sentence made forceful ? 

(/) Thou shalt plant in terror, and I will reap in 
blood ; thou shalt sow the earth with corn, and I will 
strew it with ashes ; thou shalt go forth with the sickle, 
and I will follow after with the scalping knife ; thou 
shalt build and I will burn — till the white man or the 
Indian shall cease from the land. 

— Edward Everett 
(On the Wrongs of the Indians) 

IX. THINGS TO REMEMBER IN MAKING 
SENTENCES 

1. Sentences must be fitted to thought so as 
to express it accurately, clearly, forcefully, and 
agreeably. 

2. A simple sentence should be used for the 
expression of a simple thought. 

3. A compound sentence should be used for the 
expression of two or more thoughts that are inde- 
pendent but so closely related that they seem to 
form a single thought. 

4. A complex sentence should be used for the 
expression of two or more closely related thoughts, 
at least one of which is subordinate and one prin- 
cipal. 



CHAPTER FOURTEEN 

EXPOSITION AND ARGUMENT 
I. MEANING OF EXPOSITION 

Every day you tell somebody how to do some- 
thing, or why you have done something in a cer- 
tain way, or why you are going to do something, 
or how you are going to do something, or why you 
want to do something, or what you think about a 
certain subject, or why you think on a certain sub- 
ject as you do. This kind of composition, which 
consists of explaining, is called exposition. 

Exposition is composition that aims to explain or make 
clear. 

Perhaps you come late to the breakfast table. 
Some explanation is necessary to account for your 
failure to rise at the first call. You walk to school 
with your friend. He tells why the home team 
was defeated in yesterday's game, and you ex- 
plain how defeat might have been turned into 
victory. When you arrive at school, the arithme- 
tic class is called and you are asked to explain a 
406 



STUDYING AN EXPOSITION 407 

problem. In the history class you are asked to 
tell why the first winter in Plymouth was so ter- 
rible. Perhaps in the geography lesson you are 
called upon to tell why manufacturing, or agri- 
culture/ or trading, or mining is the chief occu- 
pation of a certain locality. From morning until 
night you are busy explaining the "how" and 
the "why" of things, and on the clearness of your 
expositions depends not only your rank in school, 
but your standing and influence with all your as- 
sociates. 

II. STUDYING AN EXPOSITION 

Read carefully the following explanation or 
exposition. 

Murray was eager to make a collection of the differ- 
ent creatures that rest on the bottom of the sea or 
creep about there, and he made extensive preparations 
for their capture. A hole was dug through the ice and 
a trap let down to the bottom ; this trap was baited 
with a piece of penguin or seal, and the shellfish and 
other marine animals found their way in through the 
opening in the top. The trap was usually left down 
for two or three days. When it was hauled up, the con- 
tents were transferred to a tin containing water and 
then taken to the hut and thawed out, for the con- 
tents always froze during the quarter of a mile walk 
homeward. As soon as the animals thawed out they 
were sorted into bottles and then killed by various 



4 o8 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

chemicals, put into spirits and bottled up for exami- 
nation when they reached England. 

— Shackleton. (Adapted from In the Heart of the 
Antarctic) . 

The above explanation of the Antarctic explorers' 
method of capturing and preserving specimens of 
sea life is clear, definite, and sufficiently detailed. 
Therefore it is a good explanation or exposition. 
It is clear and definite because the writer told 
something that he himself knew at first hand, and 
because he told it in clear, simple language. 

The test of all exposition is clearness. If you 
would make your exposition clear, you must 
thoroughly understand your subject, and you 
must use simple, clear language. 

III. ORAL EXPOSITION 

From the following list of subjects, choose one 
with which you are already familiar, or one in 
which you are interested and about which you 
can readily learn all the important facts. Then 
prepare a short talk on your chosen subject. It 
will help to illustrate your exposition with ob- 
jects, pictures, or drawings. Your classmates 
will judge the clearness of your presentation. 

(i) How to Make Knots. 

(2) How to Make a Fire without Matches. 



WRITTEN EXPOSITION 409 

(3) How to Clean the Teeth. 

(4) How to Stand during a Recitation. 

(5) How to Open a New Book. 

(6) How to Make a Box Kite. 

(7) How to Make a Bed. 

(8) How to Wash Dishes. 

(9) How to Sweep a Room. 

(10) How to Clean the Furnace. 

(11) How to Make Soap. 

(12) How Roads Are Made. 

(13) How to Play a Game. 

(14) How to Arrange Flowers. 

(15) How a Dog (or any other pet) Should Be Cared 
for. 

(16) How to Tell Direction. 

(17) How to Train Children to Be Honest. 

(18) How to Teach Children to Be Neat. 

(19) How to Cross a Busy Street. 

(20) How to Make Ice Cream. 

(21) How to Care for House Plants. 

(22) How Paper Money Is Made. 

(23) How Our Coins Are Made. 

(24) How Flour Is Made. 

(25) How Butter Is Made. 

(26) How to Make Maple Sugar. 

If none of the above subjects appeals to you, 
choose any one in which you are interested. 

IV. WRITTEN EXPOSITION 

a. Write a short letter to a classmate telling 
clearly and simply how to do something. Think 



410 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

of something that may be done quickly in the 
schoolroom or on the school grounds. The per- 
son who receives your letter will try to follow your 
directions. If he can do this successfully your 
explanations are clear. Perhaps the following list 
will suggest a good subject. 

Suggested Subjects 

(i) How to Cut a Row of Paper Dolls. 

(2) How to Clean Board Erasers. 

(3) How to Sharpen a Pencil. 

(4) How to Write the Heading on a Paper. 

(5) How to Arrange Ten Examples on Paper. 

(6) How to Do Some Exercise in Gymnastics. 

(7) How to Salute the Flag. 

(8) How to Enter a Room Properly. 

(9) How to Regulate the Window Shades. 

(10) How to Mark out a Tennis Court on a Black- 
board. 

(11) How to Hold a Pen Correctly. 

(12) How to Hold a Book Properly. 

(13) How to Draw a Baseball Diamond on the Board. 

(14) How to Make a Paper Box. 
(155 How to Make a Model in Clay. 

(16) How to Follow a Travel Route on a Map. 

(17) How to Solve a Problem in Arithmetic. 

(18) How to Find the Names of the Ten Largest 
Cities in the World. 

(19) How to Stand Correctly. 

b. Write a letter to a friend living in a city or 
town other than your own, inviting him to visit 



ORAL EXPOSITION 411 

you on a certain day and telling him that unfortu- 
nately you cannot meet him at the train because 
of some reason that you will state. Then give 
him definite directions for reaching your home 
from the station. 

V. ORAL EXPOSITION FROM GIVEN 
INTRODUCTIONS 

Below are several good introductions for oral 
expositions. Choose one and from it make a 
short talk in which you try to prove through ex- 
amples or reasons the fact or truth stated in the 
topic sentence. 

(1) No use crying about spilled milk. 

(2) We should learn to control our tempers. 

(3) Everybody loves a cheerful person. 

(4) A grumbler is never welcome. 

(5) Fishing is not all fun. 

(6) Jokes are sometimes out of place. 

(7) A person who wastes time is dishonest. 

(8) Everybody should study arithmetic. 

(9) Everybody should learn how to read. 

(10) Everybody should learn how to give "first aid." 

(11) A boy (or girl) should learn to save. 

(12) It is better to grin than to growl. 

(13) Report day is a day of gladness or sadness. 

(14) There are many different ways of showing 
kindness. 

(15) A boy must learn to say no. 



4 i2 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(16) Camping is the best way to spend a summer 
vacation. 

(17) Birds play a great part in making people happy. 

(18) It is our duty to keep the city clean. 

(19) Every city should have parks and playgrounds. 

(20) The driver of an automobile should know the 
rules of the road. 

(21) I could not get along without my pocket knife. 

(22) The world owes much to Edison. 

(23) It is good for a boy to earn his own pocket 
money. 

(24) I like manual training. 

(25) The Boy Scouts are making better men. 

(26) The Campfire Girls are making better women. 

VI. WRITTEN EXPOSITION FROM GIVEN 
INTRODUCTION 

Below are several proverbs and quotations. 
Choose one as a topic sentence and write a short 
composition telling why the topic sentence is true. 
Before writing, make an outline of the points you 
wish to bring out. 

(1) There is no royal road to learning. 

(2) A living dog is better than a dead lion. 

(3) A man who is not courteous is unfit for business 
and company. 

(4) A poor excuse is worse than none. 

(5) The bravest are the tenderest. 

(6) An honest man's the noblest work of God. 

(7) Better a good head than a thousand strong hands. 

(8) A gift in the hand is worth two promises. 



MEANING OF ARGUMENTATION 413 

(9) It is better to be sure than sorry. 

(10) Careless shepherds make many a feast for the 
wolf. 

(11) If you would have your business done, go; if 
not, send. 

(12) Everybody's business is nobody's business. 

(13) Too many cooks spoil the broth. 

(14) Better a little fire to warm us than a great fire 
to burn us. 

(15) He that runs in the night stumbles. 

(16) Early to bed and early to rise, 

Makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise. 

(17) Never put off until to-morrow what you can do 
to-day. 

(18) Too swift arrives as tardy as too slow. . 

(19) A good servant makes a good master. 

(20) He that hath learned how to obey will know 
how to command. 

(21) Contentment does not mean less work but 
more cheer. 

(22) Enough is as good as a sackful. 

(23) A man that is cruel is cowardly. 

(24) It is not enough to run ; one must start in time. 

(25) Learning is better than riches. 

(26) Knowledge is power. 

VII. MEANING OF ARGUMENTATION 

Argumentation is composition intended to convince or in- 
fluence. 

Argumentation is exposition and something more. 
Read the following example of argumentation: 



4 i4 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Poor Indians ! Where are they now ? Indeed, 
this is a truly affecting consideration. The people 
here may say what they please; but, on the principles 
of eternal truth and justice, they have no right to this 
country. They say that they have bought it. Bought 
it ! Yes. Of whom ? Of the poor trembling natives, 
who knew that refusal would be in vain, and who strove 
to make a merit of necessity by seeming to yield with 
grace what they knew they had not the power to 
retain. 

In the above quotation the author explains 
why the Indians are poor — they have been driven 
from their homes ; the white men have taken their 
lands from them. But the author tries to do more 
than merely explain why the Indians are poor; 
he tries to arouse our sympathy for the Indians, 
to make us believe, with him, that the Indians 
have been wrongly treated. 

Now everybody does not agree with the man 
who wrote the quotation about the Indians. Some 
people think the Indians have profited by the com- 
ing of the white man. These say that the In- 
dians have better homes, food, clothing; that 
they have been educated and taught to work ; 
that their lands were fairly bought. So an ar- 
gument just opposite to the one quoted might 
be made. It is a common saying that, "There are 
two sides to every argument." 



ARGUMENT SUGGESTED BY A STORY 415 

Every day you try to convince or persuade 
somebody that your way of looking at a thing, 
your way of doing a thing, is the right way. Other 
people have different ways of doing things, dif- 
ferent opinions. They, too, want to convince 
their hearers that they are right. The man who 
can give the best reasons and the clearest expla- 
nations, who can give these most convincingly, so 
as to affect the belief or the action of his hearers — 
who can make a convincing argument — is a leader 
of men. 

Every good argument must be based on clear 
explanations and sound reasons. 

If a boy, desiring to go fishing, says to his 
mother, " I want to go so much ; please let me go," 
he is not using argument ; he is merely coaxing. 
If he says, " You ought to let me go," he is merely 
asserting. But if he gives reasons why she should 
let him go, he uses argument. 

VIII. ARGUMENT SUGGESTED BY A STORY 
a. Read the following story. 

A doctor took a pair of old boots to a cobbler and 
asked him if they were worth mending. After looking 
them over carefully, the cobbler handed the boots 
back saying, "I can do nothing for these boots. They 
are too old." 



4 i6 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

The doctor took the boots and started to leave the 
shop. 

"Wait," said the cobbler, "you forgot to pay me." 

"Pay you! For what?" asked the astonished doc- 
tor. "You did nothing for me. How can you expect 
pay?" 

"Yesterday I went to see you at your office," re- 
plied the cobbler. " I told you I was ill and asked you 
to help me. You just looked at me and said you could 
do nothing for me; but you charged me a dollar for 
the visit. I have the same right to charge you a dol- 
lar for your visit to my shop." 

The doctor refused to pay the cobbler a cent, but 
agreed to go with him before a judge where each 
might argue his case. 

Now if the doctor gave better reasons why he 
should not pay the cobbler any money than the 
cobbler could offer why he should, the judge would 
decide in favor of the doctor. If, on the other 
hand, the cobbler's reasons were more sound, and 
his explanation more clear, the judge would decide 
in the cobbler's favor. 

Choose a pupil for the judge, or perhaps choose 
three judges. Some pupils may give the argument 
the doctor might have offered, others may give 
the cobbler's argument. The judge, or judges, 
will decide in favor of the speaker who presents 
the best argument. 



ORAL ARGUMENTS 417 

IX. ORAL ARGUMENTS 

a. Below are subjects for arguments. Two 
pupils may choose any one topic. One may pre- 
pare to argue on one side of the question and the 
other on the opposite side. 

In preparation, think out carefully the expla- 
nations and reasons that you will give, making a 
few notes of the points that occur to you, and ar- 
ranging these in an orderly outline, to guide you 
when speaking or writing. In presenting your 
argument, be as clear and convincing as possible. 

(1) Should boys learn how to cook? 

(2) Should school children buy their own books ? 

(3) Should schools be opened on Saturday ? 

(4) Should children go to work before they are 
eighteen ? 

(5) Is language study more important than arith- 
metic ? 

(6) Is arithmetic more important than reading ? 

(7) Is a farmer more independent than a doctor ? 

(8) Is it worth while to collect stamps ? 

(9) Should children be told about Santa Claus ? 

(10) Should everybody go to high school (or college) ? 

(11) Was life in Colonial times better than to-day ? 

(12) Should a child have an allowance ? 

(13) Should pupils have home work ? 

(14) Should children have some task at home every 
day? 

(15) Should children keep an account of the money 
they spend ? 



4 i 8 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(16) Should children work during the summer va- 
cation ? 

(17) Is an eight hour day too long ? 

(18) Which is the better exercise, swimming or 
walking ? 

(19) Is it better to put money in the bank or to spend 
it for books ? 

(20) Is it right to play marbles "for keeps" ? 

(21) Should all boys under fifteen years be at home 
after eight o'clock in the evening ? 

(22) Should girls be at home earlier in the evening 
than boys ? 

(23) Should the school day be lengthened so that all 
study may be done at school ? 

(24) Should every child have some pet ? 

b. Write six or more questions of your own 
that you would like to argue or to hear argued. 

X. WRITTEN ARGUMENTS 

a. Choose one of the above questions, or one of 
the questions written by yourself or some other 
pupil, and write the strongest argument you can 
on one side of that question. 

b. Write the strongest argument you can on 
one of the following subjects : 

1. Why a new resident of your city should rent or 
build on your street. 

2. Why your city, town, or county should attract 
new residents. 



MAKING ORIGINAL ADDRESSES 419 

XL MAKING ORIGINAL ADDRESSES 

Prepare a minute-and-a-half or a two-minute 
talk from one of the following outlines or topics. 
Start with a good introductory sentence, one 
that will arouse the interest of your hearers and 
make them want to hear the rest of your talk. 
Make your explanations clear, so that your hearers 
will understand what you mean to prove. Make 
your hearers agree with you. Close with a strong 
sentence or climax. 

a. It is not what a man earns but what he saves 
that counts. 

Taking the above as your introductory sentence, 
prove the truth of the statement. You might use 
a quotation or a short story to help make your 
meaning clear. When you have finished, find 
out how many of your hearers agree with you. 

b. It is not how much we have, but how we use it 
that brings happiness. 

Is the man who has most money happier than 
others ? 

Do you know any story to illustrate this ? 
Can you use this quotation ? 

"Not what we give, but what we share, — 
For the gift without the giver is bare." 

c. Good morning. 



4 2o THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Should this friendly greeting be changed ? Some- 
times the morning seems anything but "good"; 
the day may be rainy, or too hot, or too cold ; one 
may be ill or in sorrow; he may have lost his 
money or his dearest friend. Still, would you like 
to lose the cheery "Good morning" of a friend? 
Defend this form of salutation. 

d. Why we should observe Thanksgiving Day. 

e. A speech for Memorial Day. 

/. The Flag (use a good quotation). 

g. People should take advantage of free education. 

h. How we should treat foreigners. 

i. The greatest invention of modern times. 

j. What makes a coward. 

k. Is a brave deed always a noble one ? 

/. What is success ? (Christopher Columbus was 
called a failure.) 

m. What does a boy or a girl owe to his home ? 

n. What is meaner than a lie ? 

o. Why we should memorize poetry. 

p. What kinds of books are best for boys ? (girls ?) 

q. Should one be ashamed of poverty ? 

r. Should one be proud of wealth ? 

s. Of what should one be proud ? 

t. Of what should one be ashamed ? 

u. The duty of the school to stand by the team. 

v. The curse of war. 

w. Some victories of peace. 

x. The proper use of wealth. 

y. The advantages of country (or city) life. 

z. It is the duty of every one to do his best. 



CHAPTER FIFTEEN 

SUMMARY OF RULES FOR PUNCTUATION AND 
CAPITALS 

Punctuation marks and capitals are signs to the 
eye. Their sole purpose is to make written lan- 
guage clearer to the reader. 

To some extent, punctuation is a matter of 
judgment. There are, however, certain rules that 
are universally accepted because of their useful- 
ness. These should be taken as guides by young 
writers. 

I. MARKS USED AT THE END OF 
SENTENCES 

Three marks of punctuation, and only three, are 
used to mark the end of sentences. These are the 
period ( . ), the interrogation point ( ? ), and the 
exclamation point ( ! ). 

(1) The Period is used to mark the end of a declarative 
or an imperative sentence. 

The wind is strong. Close all the windows. 
421 



422 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

The period is also used to mark an abbreviation. 
Mrs. J. B. White is visiting at Saratoga, N. Y. 

(2) The Interrogation Point is used to mark the end of a 
direct question. 

Which season do you like best ? 

An interrogation point is not used after an 
indirect question. 

He asked which season I like best. 

(3) The Exclamation Point is used to mark the end of an 
exclamatory sentence. 

What a fine man Washington was ! 

The exclamation point is also used after inter- 
jections and other exclamatory words or phrases. 

Hark ! the alarm bell ! 

To arms ! to arms ! They come ! They come ! 

If the writer wishes the whole thought to ex- 
press emotion, rather than the interjection at the 
beginning, he places the exclamation point at the 
end of the sentence. 

Ah, I am so glad to see you ! 

If the writer wishes to express emotion in both 
the interjection and the sentence following it, he 
places an exclamation point after the interjection 
and another after the sentence. 

Oh ! how sorry I am ! 



USES OF THE COMMA 423 

a. Give the reason for the use of each mark of 
punctuation in the following sentences : 

What! would you like to be in a battle? 

I should like to be with heroes wherever they might be. 

You a hero! You would fly before the battle. 

b. Write sentences illustrating the uses of the 
period, the interrogation point, and the exclama- 
tion point. 

II. USES OF THE COMMA 

These are the marks of punctuation used within 
sentences : 

Comma ( , ) Dash ( — ) 

Semicolon ( ; ) Parentheses ( ) 

Colon ( : ) Quotation marks (." ") 

The comma is used for the general purpose of separating 
for the eye those words in a sentence that are not closely 
related, and keeping together those that are closely related. 

If the words to be separated from the rest of the 
sentence come at the beginning, a comma is placed 
after them ; if they come in the midst, a comma is 
placed both before and after ; if they come at the 
end, a comma is placed before them : as, 

Tom, please lend me your pencil. 
Please, Tom, lend me your pencil. 
Please lend me your pencil, Tom. 

Use commas only where they will be of service in unfold- 
ing the sense. In case of doubt, omit the comma. 



424 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

Because much is left to the judgment of the 
writer in the use of the comma, this mark de- 
mands the most thought and care in its use. The 
careless insertion of a comma may leave the 
meaning of the sentence in doubt or entirely 
change the meaning intended. More than once, 
the careless omission or insertion of a comma has 
rendered the effect of a law quite different from 
what was intended by the lawmakers. The fol- 
lowing sentences, all identical in words, illustrate 
the importance of the comma : 

(i) Make all you can save all you can spend. 

(2) Make all you can, save all you can, spend. 

(3) Make all you can, save all you can spend. 

(4) Make all you can save, all you can spend. 

(5) Make all you can save, all you can, spend. 

(6) Make all, you can save all you can spend. 

(7) Make all, you can save all, you can spend. 

It is impossible to tell what the first sentence 
means. Read aloud each of the other sentences 
so as to bring* out the meaning indicated by the 
use of the comma. 

a. The comma is used to mark off an introductory 
word, phrase, or clause. 

Yes, I will go. 

Hearing a shout, he ran to the door. 

If you're not afraid, we will go now. 



USES OF THE COMMA 425 

Mark off with commas the introductory words, 
phrases, and subordinate clauses in the following 
sentences : 

(1) As he uttered the last words Curdie let go his hold. 

(2) There don't cry. 

(3) When the warm spring days returned the bear 
came shambling from his retreat. 

(4) Indeed I am surprised. 

(5) Being wet and tired we looked for a place to 
spend the night. 

(6) In future please be more careful. 

(7) Seeing the efforts of the sailors Tom knew we 
should reach the raft in time. 

b. Commas are used to separate from the rest of the 
sentence words, phrases, and clauses used parenthetically. 

Delay, it is said, is dangerous. 
Haste, however, is dangerous also. 

The words, it is said, and however are paren- 
thetical ; that is to say, they are not necessary 
to the main thought of the sentence, but are 
thrown in as a kind of side remark. 

Use commas to mark off the parenthetical parts 
in the following sentences : 

(1) Formerly however a kitchen garden occupied 
the site. 

(2) Money in truth can do much ; but it cannot do 
all. 

(3) For after all we are sure of little on this earth. 



426 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(4) I find nevertheless that good is stronger than evil. 

(5) He had tried he said to choose the best. 

c. Commas are used to separate from the rest of the 
sentence words, phrases, and clauses used in apposition. 

Milton, the poet, was blind. 

The saying, " Haste makes waste," is illustrated 
daily. 

The clause, Haste makes waste, in the second 
sentence, is in apposition with the noun saying. 

Set off with commas the words, phrases, and 
clauses in apposition in the following sentences : 

(1) Peary the Artie explorer discovered the North 
Pole. 

(2) Dr. Watts' statement " Birds in their little 
nest agree " is very far from being true. 

(3) Ornithology the study of birds develops keen- 
ness of observation. 

(4) His harp his sole remaining joy 
Was carried by an orphan boy. 

(5) Old Ironsides the frigate Constitution has in- 
spired many writers and fighters. 

d. Commas are used to separate from each other words, 
phrases, and clauses in a series. 

When a conjunction is used between the last 
two members in the series, the comma is placed 
before the conjunction. 

On the stage he was natural, simple, affecting. 
Home, kindred, friends, and country are things with 
which we never part. 



USES OF THE COMMA 427 

There is something that is stronger than words, 
deeper than tears, more beautiful than wisdom. It is 
hope. Never give up! 

We have petitioned, we have remonstrated, we 
have supplicated, we have prostrated ourselves before 
the Throne, and have implored its interposition to 
arrest the tyrannical hands of the Ministry and Parlia- 
ment. — Patrick Henry 

Separate with commas the members of series in 
the following quotations : 

(1) The time demands 
Strong minds great hearts true faith and willing 

hands. 

(2) Deliver the laddies before thee from lying 
cheating cowardice and laziness. 

(3) Happiness comes from striving doing loving 
achieving conquering. 

(4) I will this day try to live a simple sincere and 
serene life ; repelling promptly every thought of dis- 
content anxiety discouragement and self-seeking ; 
cultivating cheerfulness magnanimity and charity. 

e. Commas are used to mark off words or phrases in 
direct address. 

Back, Horatius, back! 

Tom, Jack, Dick, and Jarvis, attend me. 

We are at your service, my lord. 

Set off with commas the words used in direct 
address in the following sentences : 

(1) Does this horse shy hostler? 

(2) Shy sir? Never! 



428 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(3) Now shiny William give the gentleman the 
ribbons. 

(4) Don't be afraid gentlemen ; he is just playful. 

(5) Mount on the other side sir if you please. 

/. Commas are used to separate from the rest of the 
sentence a short direct quotation. 

Dombey asked, " How do you feel now, my son? " 
" I am a great deal better," answered little Paul. 
" Floy," he said, " what is that? " 

Set off with commas the quotations in the fol- 
lowing : 

An old miser kept a tame jackdaw, that used to 
steal pieces of money, and hide them in a hole. One 
day a cat saw him and said " Why do you hoard up 
those round shining things? You can make no use of 
them." 

" Why " said the jackdaw " my master has a whole 
chestful, and he makes no more use of them than I do." 

g. The comma is used to denote the omission of words 
necessary to the grammatical structure of a sentence. 

John was honest ; Tom, dishonest. 
I found a pansy ; Jack, a rose. 

In the first sentence, was is omitted from the 
second clause. The complete grammatical sen- 
tence is John was honest; Tom was dishonest. 
In the second sentence, what word is omitted in 
the second clause ? Read the complete gram- 
matical sentence. 



USES OF THE COMMA 429 

Supply the commas needed in the following 
sentences. Tell yourself why you use each: 

(1) Good is a certainty; evil a doubt. 

(2) Beauty is truth; truth beauty. 

(3) To the brave work becomes play; adversity a 
winning fight. 

(4) Walter is the better penman; Charles the bet- 
ter speller. 

(5) Gifts cost money; smiles nothing. 

h. Commas are used to separate the independent 
clauses of a compound sentence when the clauses are 
very closely related. 

If a conjunction joins the clauses, a comma is 
placed before the conjunction ; but if the clauses 
are very short, the comma is sometimes omitted. 

Come forth into the light of things, 
Let Nature be your teacher. 

— Wordsworth 

Be pleasant until ten o'clock in the morning, and 
the rest of the day will take care of itself. 
Do right and fear no man. 
Deeds are fruits, words are leaves, 
Words pass away but actions remain. 

Use commas to separate the clauses in the fol- 
lowing compound sentences : 

(1) Time relieves the foolish from sorrow but wis- 
dom relieves the wise. 



430 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(2) Keep thy heart and then it will be easy for 
thee to keep thy tongue. 

(3) I steal by lawns and grassy plots 

I slide by hazel covers. — Tennyson 

(4) Without courage there can be no truth and 
without truth there can be no other virtue. 

(5) It is a good thing to be rich but it is a better 
thing to be beloved of many friends. 

(6) The flag floats east the flag floats west. 

1. Commas are used to mark off subordinate clauses un- 
less they are necessary to the meaning or very short. 

Just as I awoke, the clock struck six. 

Water, which is composed of two gases, is a necessity 
of life. 

Water which is stagnant is unwholesome. 

Work hard while you work. 

j. Give the reason for the use of every comma 
in the following quotations : 

(1) To gild refined gold, to paint the lily, 
To throw a perfume on the violet, 

To smooth the ice, to add another hue 

Unto the rainbow, or with taper-light 

To seek the beauteous eye of Heaven to garnish, 

Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. 

— Shakespeare 

(2) When I can't sleep, I just count my blessings. 

— Margaret Deland 

(3) No fame, were the best less brittle, 

No praise, were it wide as earth, 
Is worth so much as a little 
Child's love may be worth. 

— Swinburne 



USES OF THE SEMICOLON 431 

(4) There is a pleasure in the pathless woods, 
There is a rapture on the lonely shore, 
There is society, where none intrudes, 
By the deep sea, and music in its roar. 

— Byron 

(5) My business is not to remake myself, but to 
make the absolute best of what God made. 

— Browning 

(6) By examining the tongue of a patient, physicians 
find out the diseases of the body, and philosophers, the 
diseases of the mind. — Justin 

(7) " Set me some great tasks, ye gods, and I will 

show my spirit! " 
" Not so," says the good heaven, " plod and 
plough." — Emerson 

III. USES OF THE SEMICOLON 

The semicolon ( ; ) is a strengthened comma. 

a. The semicolon is used in compound sentences to 
separate independent clauses that are not very closely con- 
nected in thought, especially when there is no conjunction 
between the clauses. 

Make the best of everything; think the best of 
everybody ; hope the best for yourself. 
The foe long since in silence slept; 

Alike the conqueror silent sleeps; 
And time the ruined bridge has swept 

Down the dark stream that seaward creeps. 

— Emerson 

Use semicolons to separate the clauses in the 
following compound sentences : 



432 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(i) It is well to think well it is divine to act well. 

(2) You cannot dream yourself into a character 
you must hammer and forge one for yourself. 

(3) He who thinks he can do without the world 
deceives himself but he who thinks the world cannot 
do without him is still more in error. 

b. A semicolon is used to separate the independent 
clauses of a compound sentence when one or more of the 
independent clauses contains commas. 

I wrote down my troubles every day; 

And after a few short years, 
When I turned to the heart-aches passed away, 

I read them with smiles, not tears. 

— John Boyle O'Reilly 

Separate with semicolons the independent clauses 
of the following compound sentences : 

(1) A good word is an easy obligation but not to 
speak ill requires only our silence, which costs nothing. 

(2) Between two evils, choose neither between two 
goods, choose both. 

(3) Temperance and labor are the best two physi- 
cians of man labor sharpens the appetite, and tem- 
perance prevents excessive indulgence in it. 

IV. USES OF THE COLON 

The colon ( : ) usually indicates that something 
is to follow. It is most frequently employed be- 
tween words that arouse curiosity or expectancy, 
and the words which satisfy the curiosity or 



USES OF THE COLON 433 

expectancy. This explains its use after the saluta- 
tion in a letter. 

a. The colon is used between the clauses of a compound 
sentence when the second clause explains or illustrates 
the first. 

The world needs all its poets : it is they who make 
the dark days bright. 

Beauty is like a rainbow : it is full of promise but 
short lived. 

b. The colon is used before a long or formal quotation. 

(1) On Robert Louis Stevenson's tomb are engraved 
these lines written by himself: 

" Here he lies where he longed to be; 
Home is the sailor, home from the sea, 
And the hunter home from the hill." 

(2) But he rose upon their decks, and he cried: 

" I have fought for Queen and Faith like a 
valiant man and true ; 
I have only done my duty as a man is bound 

to do. 
With a joyful spirit I, Sir Richard Grenville, 
die!" 

c. The colon is used to introduce a list of items or 
directions. 

(1) The following magazines are always on file at 
the library : The Saturday Evening Post, The Review 
of Reviews, The Outlook, The Geographical Magazine, 
The Youth's Companion, The Century Magazine, The 
Atlantic, and Scribner's. 



434 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(2) Read the following directions : think before you 
write ; punctuate as you write ; never use a mark of 
punctuation unless you are sure of its correct use. 

d. The colon is used after such expressions as the 
following : as follows, the following, thus, in the following 
manner. 

The quotation reads as follows : " Let your thoughts 
be well dressed if you would have them move in good 
company." 

V. USES OF THE DASH 

a. The dash is used to mark a sudden break in thought 
or construction. 

I cann6t — I will — no, I will remain at my post. 
He said — but I will not repeat idle gossip. 
His horse — what a horse for a king to ride! 

The ill-timed truth we might have kept, — 
Who knows how sharp it pierced and stung? ' 
The word we had not sense to say, — 
Who knows how grandly it had rung? 

— E. R. Sill 

b. The dash is sometimes used before a word or group 
of words at the end of a sentence to emphasize the climax. 

Slowly, cautiously I reached forth in the dark, 
made a sudden lunge and grasped — nothing. 

A little explained, a little endured, a little forgiven 

— the quarrel is cured. 

Live pure, speak true, right wrong, follow the king 

— else, wherefore born ? 



USES OF THE DASH 435 

c. The dash is sometimes used between words or 
syllables to mark hesitation, emotion, or repetition. 

(1) "Well — let — me — see — you go with John 
and — tell the doc — bless me! He's gone!" 

(2) "I — I — I have — lost — lost — my penny," 
sobbed Fanny. 

(3) " Act — act in the living present." 

d. The dash is sometimes used to mark the omission of 
words, letters, and figures. 

I asked Mr. — if he had heard of the horrors in the 
town of D — . 

Read chapters 1-5. 

In the first sentence the first dash is used in 
place of a man's name, and the second is used in 
place of all the letters of the town's name except 
the first, which is D. 

In the second sentence the dash is used in place 
of the figures 2, 3, 4. 

e. Dashes, rather than commas, may be used to mark 
off parenthetical expressions, especially when such ex- 
pressions are explanatory, or when it is desired to give 
them emphasis. 

Hail to thee, blithe spirit — 

Bird thou never wert — 
That from heaven, or near it, 

Pourest thy full heart 
In profuse strains of unpremeditated art! 

— Shelley 



436 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

And now before the open door — 
The warrior-priest had ordered so — 
The enlisting trumpet's sudden war 
Rang through the chapel, o'er and o'er, 
Its long reverberating blow. — T. B. Read 
Fondly do we hope — fervently do we pray — 
that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. 

— Lincoln 

/. The dash is sometimes used, instead of the semicolon, 
before a series of details or examples. 

They all came — brothers, sisters, cousins, aunts, 
uncles. 

g. The dash is used after a series of details that are 
summed up in a single thought. 

Brothers, sisters, cousins, aunts, uncles — all came 
to the wedding. 

VI. USE OF PARENTHESES 

Parentheses ( ), as the name suggests, are used to 
inclose parenthetical expressions. 

Their most frequent use is to inclose paren- 
thetical references to pages, illustrations, sections, 
or numbers. 

As we have already learned (see pp. 425, 435), 
parenthetical expressions that are a part of the text 
are marked off by commas or dashes. 

The question mark (?) is used at the end of ques- 
tions. 



USES OF QUOTATION MARKS 437 

These three examples are lettered (a), (b), and (c) ; 
they might be numbered (1), (2), and (3). 

These uses of parentheses are frequently il- 
lustrated throughout this book. Find five ex- 
amples. 

VII. USES OF QUOTATION MARKS 

a. Quotation marks are used to inclose direct quotations. 

" Cousin," cried Mr. Smith, " come here. I have 
something to show you." 

" What is it ? " his cousin asked suspiciously. 

Mr. Smith laughed, and answered, " Come and see." 

The following shows the correct punctuation 
and use of capitals in quoting a declarative sen- 
tence when the words "he said" (or their equiva- 
lent) precede, follow, or interrupt the quoted 
words : 

(1) He said, " M ." 

(2) " M ," he said. 

("O " M (Part of s 611 * 61 "*) " he Said " m (rest of sentence) " 
(a) " A/I " he Said " TV^ (Additional sentence or sentences) " 

b. A quotation within a quotation is inclosed in single 
quotation marks (' '). 

His cousin answered : " No, I'll not come. I know 
you are up to a joke. Only yesterday you said, 
' Open your mouth and I'll give you something good.' 
I obey ; and what did you pop into my mouth ? I 
need not tell you, you constant joker." 



438 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

c. When italics are not used, quotation marks are used 
to inclose the titles of books, newspapers, magazines, 
poems, plays, pictures, essays, and the like. 

My favorite book is " Treasure Island." 

VIII. USES OF THE APOSTROPHE AND THE 
HYPHEN 

Only two marks are used within words : the 
apostrophe ( ' ), and the hyphen ( - ). 

a. The apostrophe is used to mark the possessive case 
of nouns. 

Tom's uncle; the boy's hat; the boys' hats. 

b. The apostrophe is used to mark the omission of letters 
or figures. 

Don't- ; can't ; doesn't ; Jan. 26, '17. 

c. The apostrophe is used to mark the plurals of letters, 
figures, and signs. 

He has trouble making his 4's. 
Mind your p's and q's. 
I had six -f-'s on my card. 

d. The hyphen is used at the end of a line between 
syllables to mark the division of a word. 

If one cannot write the whole of the word 
gymnasium at the end of a line, he may break it at 
any of the places indicated by the hyphens, gym- 
na-si-um ; he must not divide it in the midst of a 
syllable. 



GIVING REASONS FOR PUNCTUATION 439 

e. The hyphen is used between the parts of some com- 
pound words. 

Thirty-eight, quarter-deck, brother-in-law. 

IX. GIVING REASONS FOR PUNCTUATION 

a. Tell why each mark is used in the following 
quotations : 

(1) " Oh ! " cried Athos, stopping suddenly, " what 
is to be done ? " 

" Has anything been forgotten? " asked Aramis. 
" Our flag, man, our flag! We can't leave our flag 
in the enemy's hands, if it is nothing but a napkin." 

— Dumas 

(2) " Master," stuttered he, " My lord — Sire — 
How shall I address you? " 

(3) Are you either thief, beggar, or tramp? 

(4) ^Esop was a vagrant ; Homer was a beggar ; 
Mercury was a thief. 

(5) An instant — Hear me — You will not condemn 
me unheard! 

(6) Cheerfulness may be a smile on the face ; 
optimism is the smile in the heart — when one is 
fighting hardest. — W. G. Jordan 

(7) Alexander, when one asked of him how he had 
conquered, answered, " By not delaying." 

(8) Some one asked a famous musician, 

" What is your favorite composition? " 

" Whatever I am playing," was the answer. 

(9) Reading enables us to see with the keenest eyes, 
to hear with the finest ears, and to listen to the sweetest 
voices of all times. — Lowell 



44Q THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

(10) God of our fathers, known of old — 

Lord of our far flung battle line — 

Beneath Whose awful Hand we hold 

Dominion over palm and pine — 
Lord God of hosts, be with us yet, 
Lest we forget — lest we forget! 

— Kipling 

b. Observe these three rules in punctuating : 
(i) Think a whole sentence before you write it. 

(2) Punctuate as you write. 

(3) Never use a punctuation mark unless you 
know the reason for its use. 

c. If you make a mistake in punctuation, your 
teacher will call your attention to it by writing P 
in the margin of your paper. If you omit a neces- 
sary mark of punctuation, you will find the mark 
A where the punctuation mark should be placed. 
If your teacher wishes to help you further, she may 
indicate the mark that should be inserted by 
writing it in the margin. The teacher's marks will 
appear as follows : 

(1) "Where are you going," said John. P 
The teacher's mark P, in the margin, tells you 

that something is wrong in the punctuation of the 
sentence. You will correct this mistake by chang- 
ing the comma to an interrogation point. 

(2) "Friends y\ I ask you to come to my help." P 
What should be done to correct the above sentence ? 



THE USES OF CAPITAL LETTERS 441 

■(d) "Do not think of your faults/, still less;/ of 
others faults." 

How will you correct the above sentence ? 



X. SUMMARY OF THE USES OF CAPITAL 
LETTERS 

Capital letters are used to indicate : — 

1. The first word of every sentence, and of every line 
of poetry. 

Small service is true service while it lasts. 

Howe'er it be, it seems to me, 

'Tis only noble to be good. 
Kind hearts are more than coronets, 

And simple faith than Norman blood. 

2. The first word of a direct quotation that is a com- 
plete sentence. 

Someone said, " Labor is the law of happiness." 

A capital is not used to begin the quotation of 

a phrase or of a word which, as originally used, 

was not a complete sentence : as, 

Someone has called labor " the law of happiness." 

3. Proper nouns and most adjectives derived from them. 

Tennyson, New York, American. 

4. The pronoun / and the interjection O. 

" O country mine! I love thee! " 



442 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

5. The first word and every important word in the title 
of a book, poem, or composition. 

John Halifax, Gentleman. 

The Charge of the Light Brigade. 

What I Did in Vacation. 

6. The words street, avenue, lake, river, bay, ocean, 
gulf, mountain when used as parts of proper names. 

Wall Street, Washington Avenue, Lake of the Isles, 
Hudson River. 

7. All names or titles of the Deity and pronouns refer- 
ring to the Deity. 

I hope to see my Pilot face to face 

When I have crossed the bar. 

— Tennyson 
Lord God of Hosts, be with us yet, 

Lest we forget — lest we forget! 

— Kipling 
Our fathers' God, to Thee, 
Author of liberty, 

To Thee we sing; 
Long may our land be bright 
With Freedom's holy light; 
Protect us by Thy might, 

Great God, our King. 

What nouns and pronouns in the above quota- 
tions begin with capital letters because they 
refer to the Deity ? 

8. Titles of honor or office, when used with the name 
of the holder, or used formally. 



THE USES OF CAPITAL LETTERS 443 

President Washington ; Rear-Admiral Day of the 
U. S. Navy ; The Attorney General of the United 
States of America ; Attorney General Griggs. 

9. The words north, south, east, and west when they 
name sections of the country. 

These words do not begin with capitals when 
they denote directions. 

(a) No North, no South, 
No East, no West ; 

One country always, the greatest and best! 

(b) After traveling for an hour- due north, we turned 
to the east. 

10. The names of religious denominations, political par- 
ties, great events in history, or great historic periods. 

The Revolutionary War is often called the War of 
Independence. 

The Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776. 
President Harrison was a Republican. 
Washington was a devout Episcopalian. 

11. Words denoting personal relationship, like father, 
aunt, cousin, when used alone or followed by the proper 
name of the person, and not preceded by a possessive 
pronoun (my, your, his, her, their), begin with capitals. 

Yes, Uncle, I see Aunt Eliza coming. 

Yes, Uncle John, I see my aunt Eliza coming. 

(a) How sleep the brave, who sink to rest 
By all their country's wishes blest! 
When Spring, with dewy fingers cold, 
Returns to deck their hallowed mould, 



444 THIRD LANGUAGE BOOK 

She there shall dress a sweeter sod 
Than Fancy's feet have ever trod. 



There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray, 
To bless the turf that wraps their clay; 
And Freedom shall a while repair 
To dwell, a weeping hermit, there! 

— William Collins 

Which words in the above quotation are names 
of things personified ? 

XL THE USE OF SYMBOLS IN CORRECTING 
WRITTEN WORK 

Below is a list of symbols, with the meaning 
of each, used by teachers to indicate errors, and 
corrections to be made in written work. These 
symbols are written in the margin of the paper, 
opposite the error to which they refer. Some- 
times the error is still more definitely indicated by 
underscoring a word or a letter, or by the sign ^, 
at the point where something is omitted. 

U Make a new paragraph. 
No % There should be no new paragraph. 
Cap Error in use or omission of capitals. Cor- 
rect it. 
S. Error in spelling. Consult dictionary and 

correct it. 
P. Error in punctuation. Correct it. 



THE USE OF SYMBOLS ' 445 

? The word underlined is not satisfactory. 

Change it. 
A Something omitted. Insert what is needed. 
Perhaps it is given in the margin. 
Tr. Something out of its proper order. Trans- 
pose it. 
Gr. Grammatical error. Correct it. 
Sent. The sentence structure is poor. Rewrite 

the sentence. 
Con. Connection of sentences is faulty. Improve 

it. 
Int. There is lack of interest. Supply something 
better. 
Force. There is lack of force. Improve it. 
Rw. Rewrite this part. 

When in doubt consult the teacher. 



INDEX 



The numerals refer to pages. 



Abbreviation, Period with, 422. 
Active Voice, Definition, 261. 
Addition, Clauses united by, 322. 
Addresses, Making original, 419- 

420. 
Adjective Clause, 309. 
Adjectives, 140. 

Adverbs confounded with, 
168-169. 

Comparison of, 154-160. 

Definition, 141, 306. 

Kinds of, 141-145. 

Misuse of, 160-163, 166. 

Overworked, 163-166. 

Predicate, 232, 234. 

Singular and plural of, 145- 
147. 
Adverbial Clause, 309. 
Adverbs : 

Adjectives and, 168-169. 

Comparison of, 156. 

Definition, 141, 147, 306. 

Examples, 148-150. 

Force of, 1 51-154. 

Kinds of, 148-149. 

Misuse of, 234-236. 

Use of, 232. 
Aggravating and irritating, 167. 
Anecdote, Defined, 343. 
Antecedent of Pronoun, ill, 

332. 
Anticlimax, 13-15. 



Antonyms, 178. 1 

Definition, 179. 

Examples of common, 193- 
205. 

Finding, 181. 

Studying sentences for, 179- 
180. 
Any, Correct use of, 158. 
Apostrophe, Uses of, 438. 
Apposition, Noun in, 131. 
Argumentation : 

Meaning of, 413. 

Oral, 417-418. 

Studying, 413-416. 

Written, 418. 
Articles, Definition, 143. 
Association of Ideas, 191. 
Autobiography, Defined, 343. 
Awful, 164. 

Battle Hymn of the Republic, 206- 

207. 
Biography, Defined, 343. 
Book Critic, The, 1-2. 

Can and could, 263. 

Capitals, Uses of, 28, 30, 82, 123, 

421, 4417444- 
Case, Definition, 89. 

See Nouns and Pronouns. 
Cause, Conjunctions denoting, 

330. 



447 



448 



INDEX 



Cause and Effect, Clauses of, 323. 
Clauses : 

Conjunctions and, 322-323. 

Definition, 309. 

In complex sentences, 327. 

Independent, 319. 

Kinds, 309. 

Principal, 327. 

Studying sentences for, 312- 

313- 

Subordinate, 327. 

Using, 310-312. 
Climax : 

Defined, 13. 

Examples, 13—15. 

Use of, 65, 396. 
Colon, 423. 

Uses of, 122, 129, 432-434. 
Comma, Uses of, 120-123, 129, 
131, 240, 295, 310, 320, 322, 
327, 423-431. 
Comparative Degree : 

Definition, 155. 

Examples, 156. 

Using superlative and, 157- 
160. 
Comparison : 

Definition, 155. 

Forming degrees of, 155-157. 

Using degrees of, 157-160. 
Complete Verb, Definition, 226. 
Condition, Conjunctions denot- 
ing, 330. 
Conjunctions : 

Definition, 302, 307. 

Examples, 303. 

In complex sentences, 328- 

33i- 
In compound sentences, 322- 
323> 325-326. 



Contrast, Clauses united because 

of, 322. 
Correlatives, 303-305. 

Rule for use, 305. 
Could, Misuse of, 263. 

Dash, Uses of, 122, 129, 423, 

434-436. 
Declarative Sentence, 28, 30, 

421. 
Degree, Adverbs of, 148. 
Description : 

By comparisons, 287-291. 

Choosing object for, 268. 

Different viewpoints for, 283. 

Feeling in writing, 282. 

Importance of, 265. 

In a story, 285-287. 

Kinds of, 266. 

Mind's viewpoint in, 279-280. 

Of bird, 271-273. 

Of familiar object, 268-271. 

Of flower, 273-275. 

Of school, 275-276. 

Studying, for feeling, 280- 
281. 

Subjects for, 284. 

Viewpoint in, 276-278. 
Direct Object : 

Definition, 211, 232. 

Using pronoun as, 214-216. 
Doesn't and don't, 108. 
Double Negatives, 169-170. 
Dumb and stupid, 166. 

Elegant, 160-164. 

Emigrate and immigrate, 264. 

Exclamation Point, 29, 30, 

422. 
Exclamatory Sentence, 29, 30. 



INDEX 



449 



Exposition : 
Definition, 406. 
Oral, 408-409, 411-412. 
Studying, 407-408. 
Written, 409-411, 412-413. 

Fables : 

How to write, 388-392. 

Origin and use, 384-388. 
Fiction, Defined, 343. 
Figures, Plural of, 97. 
Funny and odd, 166. 
Future Perfect Tense, 247. 
Future Tense, 245, 246. 

Gender, 110-116. 
Gerunds, 237, 242. 
Good and well, 168. 
Grammar : 

Defined, 23. 

Meaning and use, 22-23. 
Guess and think, 264. 

Had ought, hadn't ought, 264. 
Hasn't and haven't, 107. 
Have got, 264. 

Healthy, healthful, and whole- 
some, 167. 
He and him, 92, 301. 
History, Defined, 343. 
Hyphen, Uses of, 438-439. 

/ and me, 91, 301. 
Immigrate, Misuse of, 264. 
I'm not, aren't, isn't, 106. 
Imperative Sentence, 421. 
Indention, 49, 80. 
Indirect object: 

Definition, 216. 

Using pronoun as, 218-219. 



Infinitives, 237, 242. 
Interjections : 

Definition, 305, 307. 

Examples, 306. 
Interrogation Point, 29, 30, 

422. 
Interrogative Sentence, 29, 30. 
Intransitive Verbs : 

Definition, 220. 

Kinds of, 226-229. 

Transitive and, confounded, 
221-226. 

Kind and sort, 145-147. 

Language, Right and Wrong in, 

90-91. 
Latest and last, 166. 
Learn and teach, 263. 
Leave, left, and let, 264. 
Letters, Plural of, 97. 
Letter Writing : 

Addresses in, 123-124. 

Business letters, 1 19-123. 

Examples, 124-128. 

Formal notes, 129-130. 

Friendly letters, 128-129. 
Lie, lay, and laid, 221-223. 
Linking verbs, 227. 
Lochinvar, 6-7. 

Mad and angry, 166. 
Manner or Means : 

Adverbs of, 148. 

Conjunctions denoting, 329. 
Modifiers : 

Adjectives as, 140. 

Adverbs as, 141. 

Articles as, 143. 

Defined, 132, 134. 



45° 



INDEX 



Modifiers — Continued 
Position of, 138-140. 
Studying sentences for, 134— 

135- 

Using, 136-137. 
Most and almost, 168. 
Myths, Writing : 

From outlines, 378-380. 

From quotations, 381-382. 

From titles, 383-384. 

Narration : 

Definition, 343. 

Element of suspense in, 366- 

373; 

Exercises in, 377-384. 

Forceful, 347-350. 

Keeping journal an aid in, 

375-376. 
Kinds of, 343. 
Making clear, 344-346. 
Making story move, 358— 

362. 
Sentiment in, 374. 
Use of direct quotation, 353- 

358- 
Near and nearly, 168. 
Negatives, Double, 1 69-1 70. 
Nice, 164. 
Nominative Case : 

Defined, 89. 

Examples, 89, 90. 
Nouns : 

Case of, 89-90. 

Definition, 81, 306. 

Formation of plural, 96-97. 

Gender of, 1 10. 

In apposition, 131. 

Kinds of, 82. 

Number of, 95. 



Nouns — Continued 
Predicate, 229, 232. 
Singular verbs with collective, 
116. 
Number, 95-101, 116-118, 145- 
147. 

Object : 

Direct, 211, 232. 

Indirect, 216. 

Pronoun as direct, 214-216. 

Pronoun as indirect, 218-219. 
Objective Case : 

Definition, 89. 

Examples, 90. 

Pronouns in, 214, 218. 
Only, Position in sentence, 139. 
Outlines, 53-56. 

Writing myths from sugges- 
tive, 378-380. 

Paragraphs : 

Comparing stanzas and, 78-80. 

Connected, 73-74. 

Conversation, 74-76. 

Defined, 49-50. 

In letter writing, 77. 

Outlines of, 63-64, 65-68. 

Planning, 64-67, 69-71. 

Studying for topics, 50-52. 

Ways of growth, 60-63 • 
Parenthesis, 423. 

Uses of, 436-437. 
Participles : 

Definition, 237. 

Kinds of, 237. 

Using, 239-240, 247, 249, 261, 
262. 
Parts of Speech, 81. 

Summary, 306-308. 



INDEX 



45; 



Passive Voice, 261. 

Past Perfect Tense, 247. 

Past Tense, 245. 

Perfect Tenses, 246-248, 262. 

Period, 28, 30, 120, 121, 421-422. 

Person : 

Of pronouns, 86-88. 

Of verbs, 99. 
Personification, Gender in, 114- 

116. 
Phrases, 293. 

Adjective and adverbial, 294- 
295. 

Definition, 294. 

Prepositional, 298. 

Using, 295-297. 
Place : 

Adverbs of, 148. 

Conjunctions denoting, 329. 
Plural Number, 96, 97, 98, 99. 
Poems, Prose Versions of, n-12. 
Poetry, Indention in, 78-80. 
Positive Degree : 

Definition, 155. 

Examples, 156. 
Predicate, 23-26, 32, 38-42, 44, 

45- 

Compound, 43-46. 

Definition, 25. 

Of interrogative sentence, 29. 
Predicate Adjective, 232, 234. 
Predicate Noun, 229. 
Prepositional phrase, 298. 
Prepositions : 

Definition, 297, 307. 

Pronouns with, 300-302. 

Studying sentences for, 299- 
300. 
Present Perfect Tense, 247. 
Present Tense, 245. 



Progressive and Emphatic 

Tenses, 248-250, 262. 
Pronouns : 
Agreement of, in gender, n 1- 

114. 
Agreement of, in number, 116- 

118. 
Antecedents of, in, 332. 
As subjects, 91-92. 
Case of, 89-90, 214, 218, 230. 
Definition, 85, 306. 
In compound subjects, 93-94. 
Personal, 86-88. 
Predicate, 229, 230, 232. 
Relative, 331-333. 
Use as direct object, 214-216. 
Use as indirect object, 218- 

219. 
With prepositions, 300-302. 
Proverbs : 

Writing fables from, 388-390. 
Writing fables to fit, 391-392. 
Writing stories to fit, 392-394. 
Punctuation : 

Marks of, 28-29, 3°> 120-123, 

129. 
Object of marks of, 421. 
Of compound sentences, 320- 

321, 322. 
Summary of rules for, 421- 

441. 

Quotation marks, 423. 
Uses of, 437-438. 

Real, really, and very, 169. 
Rise and raise, 223-224. 

Semicolon, 320, 322, 423, 43 1 — 
432- 



452 



INDEX 



Sentence, Definition, 25. 
Sentences : 

And not-sentences, 26-28. 

Complex, 326-331, 334-336, 

339-341- 
Compound, 318-326. 
Declarative, 28, 30, 421. 
Exclamatory, 30. 
Exercises in making, 31-32. 
Formation of, 22-23. 
How to make forceful, 395— 

403- 
Interrogative, 29, 30. 
Kinds of, 28-29. 
Predicate of, 23-26, 29, 32, 

38-42, 43-46. 
Simple, 314-317. 
Simple interrogative, 318. 
Subject of, 25, 32-34, 34-38, 

40-47, 1 08-1 10. 
True and accurate, 337. 
Shall or will, 257-258. 
She and her, 92, 301. 
Should and would, 258-260. 
Sit and set, 224-226. 
Some and somewhat, 169. 
Song of the Camp, The, 370-371. 
Sort and kind, 145-147. 
Stanzas, Paragraphs and, com- 
pared, 78. 
Star-Spangled Banner, The, 209- 

210. 
Stories : 

Suggestive beginnings for, 

377-378. 
Writing, to fit proverbs, 392- 
394- 
Story : 

Beginning or introduction of, 
2-5- 



Story — Continued 

Climax and anticlimax of, 13- 

15- 
Defined, 343. 
Ending of, 13-19. 
Movement in, 5-1 1. 
Telling a, 20-21. 
Tests of good, 1-2, 12-13. 
Writing, in parts, 19-20. 
Subject of Sentence : 

Compound, 42-43, 45-47, 108- 

110. 
Definition, 25. 
Position, 32-34. 
Subject Substantive, 34-38, 40- 

42, 307- 
Superlative Degree : 
Definition, 155. 
Examples, 156. 

Using comparative and, 157— 
160. 
Suspense, Simple interrogative 

sentence to denote, 318. 
Symbols : 
Plural of, 97. 

Used in correcting written 
work, 444-445- 
Synonyms : 

Definition, 173. 

Examples of common, 193- 

205. 
Finding, 173-176. 
Using appropriate, 176-178. 

Tenses, 244-260, 262. 
They and them, 92, 302. 
Time : 

Adverbs of, 148. 

Conjunctions expressing, 328- 
329- 



INDEX 



453 



Topic : 

Defined, 48-50. 
Noting changes in, 55. 
Studying paragraphs for, 50- 

52- 
Topic Sentence, 56-59, 60, 71- 

73, 3I5-3I6. 
Transitive Verbs : 
Definition, 210. 
Examples of, confounded with 
intransitive, 221-226. 

Verbal Noun, 242. 
Verbals, 236. 
Verb Phrase, 208. 
Verbs, 38-42, 307. 

Agreement with subject, 100- 
105, 108-110. 

Changes in, for number and 
person, 99-100. 

Collective nouns taking singu- 
lar, 116. 

Complete, 226. 

Contracted forms of, 105- 108. 

Intransitive, 219, 226. 

Irregular, 251. 

Linking, 226-229. 

Misused, 263. 



Verbs — Continued 

Principal parts of, 250, 251- 

254- 
Regular, 250. 

Singular and plural, 98-101. 
Transitive, 210-212. 
Transitive and intransitive, 

confounded, 221—226. 
Voice of, 260-263. 
Vita Lampada, 79. 

Wasn't and weren't, 106. 

We and us, 92, 301. 

Who and whom, 302. 

Who, whose, which, what, and 

that, 333. 
Words : 

Choice of, 171-172, 176-177. 

Denoting different degrees, 
177-178. 

For arousing feeling, 188-189. 

Game of tracking, 191-193. 

Meaning suggested by sound 
of, 182-184. 

Study of fitting, 184-188. 

Thinking of right, 189-191. 

Use of antonyms, 178-180. 

Use of synonyms, 172-176. 



